Design Elements_ Typography Fundamentals

DESIGN ELEMENTS

T YPOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS

DESIGN ELEMENTS

T YPOGRAPHY

FUNDAMENTALS a Graphic Style Manual for understanding how T Y POGRAPH Y A FFECTS DESIGN

kristin cullen

Introduction

CONTENTS

146

Appendices

148

Readings

152

Contributors

155

Image Credits

156

Index

160

Acknowledgments

160

About the Author

TYPE IN CONTEXT

Definition and Function

In Practice

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Anatomy and Terminology

O N T Y P E FA C E S

Categories of Type

Selection Considerations

In Combination

T Y P E S E T T I N G FA C TO R S

Space and Spacing

Alignments and Paragraphs

104

Hierarchy

114

Aesthetic Tailoring

118

STRUCTURE

122

Baseline Alignment

126

Grid Systems

138

Alternate Methods

INTRODUCTION

Designers engage with words, typographically expressing them with purpose and poise. Typography is a process, a refined craft making language visible. Designers shape language with type and give words life and power to speak text fluently. Letterforms and their supporting characters are simple shapes that do so much. With distinct voices and personalities, type whispers delicately and shouts loudly. Communication lies at its core. Type is commanding and beautiful one moment, analytic and instructive the next. It is dramatic, whimsical, modest, and extravagant. Typographic practice (and those dedicated to it) gives spoken and written language vitality across time, generations, and cultures. Rooted in everyday experience, type is ever-present. It often goes unnoticed. Other times, it radiates. A central goal of designers is marrying content and form. Function balances with aesthetics. Boundless methods exist to visualize text with type. Heightened attention and thoughtful articulation are essential. Discipline fosters skill and knowledge. Designing with type for communication challenges and fulfills and continually offers new things to explore. Design Elements: Typography Fundamentals shares typographic basics. An instructional reader rather than historical survey, it teaches the language of type and typesetting methods. It is not a publication dedicated to software, tools, or technical tips, which evolve at rapid pace. Content focuses on guiding, well-founded principles that endure. They set solid ground on which to design with type across mediums. Limitless potential for meaningful and creative visual communication exists. Typography Fundamentals is the field guide for the journey. May readers, especially students studying typography, gain knowledge and respect for language and typographic design. (With any luck, these pages will also spark a passion for type and typography.) There is so much to delight in and discover.

TYPE IN CONTEXT 12 Definition

& Function16 In Practice

“I M M A C U L AT E T Y P O G R A P H Y I S

certainly the most brittle of all the arts. To create a whole from many petrified, disconnected and given parts, to make this whole appear alive and of a piece— only sculpture in stone approaches the unyielding stiffness of perfect typography. For most people, even impeccable typography does not hold any particular aesthetic appeal. In its accessibility, it resembles great music. Under the best of circ*mstances, it is gratefully accepted. To remain nameless and without specific appreciation, yet to have been of service to a valuable work and to the small number of visually sensitive readers—this, as a rule, is the only compensation for the long, and indeed never-ending, indenture of the typographer.”

from “Clay in a Potter’s Hand” The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design

jan tschichold

SELECTED READINGS The Alphabetic Labyrinth: The Letters in History and Imagination Johanna Drucker Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z David Sacks A Short History of the Printed Word Warren Chappell Robert Bringhurst

Textura Goudy Text

Rotunda San Marco

Schwabacher Duc de Berry

Fraktur Fette Fraktur

Studying typography starts with AB C s. 1 Letterforms share a heritage with prehistoric cave paintings and early writing systems, notably Sumerian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Over time, sparked by our human need to communicate, pictures of things developed into conceptual marks and sophisticated symbols of sound, which laid the foundation for alphabetic writing systems. Ancient cultures— the Phoenicians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans— devised, adapted, and refined alphabets. Thousands of years in the making, the Roman system is our present-day ancestor. Informed by advances of cultures past, it had twenty-three majuscules (uppercase letterforms) with consonants and vowels. ( J, U, and W joined the alphabet in the Middle Ages, to mark sounds unneeded earlier.) In Alphabet: The History, Evolution, and Design of the Letters We Use Today, Allan Haley writes, “The Roman capitals have had, and still have, the greatest influence on the design and use of capital letters, enduring as the standard of proportion and dignity for almost two thousand years.” Minuscules (lowercase letterforms) evolved over hundreds of years, from their origins in handwriting. The late eighth and early ninth centuries saw the making of a standardized minuscule script with enhanced legibility. Called the Carolingian minuscule, it is a key predecessor of the lowercase letterforms we know now. The twenty-six-letter alphabet—the heart of typographic practice—has remained largely unchanged for thousands of years.

Johannes Gutenberg modeled his first typeface on mid-fifteenth-century calli-

In Western civilization, the transition from lettering and handwritten scripts to mechanical typesetting occurred in mid-fifteenth-century Europe, when German-born goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg revolutionized the movable-type printing press. (Movable type was invented by Bi Sheng in China during the 1040s, and printed books using movable type emerged shortly after in Korea.) Gutenberg cast lead alloy movable-type blocks with reusable hand molds. Making almost 300 characters, he replicated calligraphic scripts of the period called Textura, a Blackletter style (named so because of its darkness). With narrow, tightly fitted forms, character strokes are thick and angular. Gutenberg’s durable, individual characters easily reassembled and reprinted on wooden presses. His metal-based ink formula upheld better than water-based precursors. Adhering well to the metal type, the ink made rich blacks with a uniform imprint. Quality mechanization led to efficient production and circulation of text, as well as codified typefaces, which spread across Western culture. Gutenberg’s system catapulted type through time— from the Renaissance and Enlightenment to the Victorian Age and Modernism. Contemporary typographers and type designers continue the legacy. Typography endures and progresses with thrilling adventure past, present, and future.

1 Design Elements: Typography Fundamentals shares typographic basics. An instructional reader, rather

graphic writing called Textura. It is narrow

than historical survey, it teaches the language of type

with tightly fitted characters and dense,

and typesetting methods. The abridged synopsis here

angular strokes. Textura is part of a

creates context. Histories of alphabets and typography

larger Blackletter family that includes

are multifaceted stories. Both offer wisdom and enrich

Rotunda, Schwabacher, and Fraktur.

visual communication. Selected readings noted in chapters support further study. See Appendices: Readings (page 148) for a complete list.

TYPE IN CONTEXT

Definition & Function

DESIGNING WITH TYPE Projects in all media require distinct typographic use based on function. Merge communication with aesthetics— one without the other limits the potential to convey information effectively and beautifully. Although projects vary with individual needs, follow simple objectives for all when designing with type for communication. 1 Convey information with type. Communicate with clarity. 2 Assist the reading process. Make it accessible (and delightful). 3 Uphold typeface integrity. Value it and its makers.

Typography is a process, a refined craft that makes language visible. Designers shape language with type and give words life and power to speak text fluently. With roles semantic and aesthetic, type that expresses text at its best serves both roles at once. Words, lines, and paragraphs carry messages via letterforms. Type conveys information and provokes emotion. It shares stories and influences behavior. At times, typographic characters are abstract constructs or images with no text to communicate, simply beauty made apparent. Typography is not handwriting, calligraphy, or lettering. Only type uses standardized forms that rearrange and reproduce in exact fashion without end. Systematized character sets fit for repeated use with ranges of text distinguish typography from other letter-making methods. Handwriting, calligraphy, and lettering tend to be reserved for customization in limited-edition and special work. Letterforms distinct from available typefaces made by hand or digital tools are unique typographic alternatives.

4 Express text beautifully. Create visually inviting work. 5 Design with appropriateness. Do what best serves each project. This vintage-inspired pocket planner, Today Is the Day, includes lovely lettering by designer and illustrator Jessica Hische. Intricate letterforms unique in appearance fill pages. Custom lettering offers one-of-a-kind alternatives to typefaces.

galison The stylistic range of calligraphy, which means “beautiful writing,” is diverse— from ornate and sinuous to rough and painterly. Tools used, typically a brush or pen, influence appearance. The logotype for Piter Pan, a Ukraine rock band, is handcrafted, then digitally produced.

sergey shapiro 12

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T Definition & Function

Directional and informational signage for the luxury hotel Estoi Palace Pousada is clear and consistently applied in sans serif Flama. Discreet and functional, it complements the elegant space.

fba.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Typography is everywhere, crossing mediums that include environments, interfaces, packaging, and print. It will no doubt thrive in digital and physical works to come. Typography is at the center of design practice. Designing with type for communication is many-sided. It is analytic and instructive, dramatic and whimsical. Designers work with type objectively and subjectively with economy and extravagance. Environmental signage systems, for example, are practical and direct; clarity is imperative. Typography is also conceptual and interpretive. Motion sequences appeal to viewers through lively type treatments. Letterforms personify or emote strongly. Regardless of the medium, balancing function and aesthetics reigns. Use fundamental principles as the basis to marry text with type. Do so with appropriateness, a concept relevant to all things typographic. Macro- and microtypography describe approaches to typographic design. Macrotypography addresses composition or layout—the plan and organization of typographic elements. Key considerations include spatial positioning and relationship-building among elements and white space (negative space). The macro view is the compositional body, in which designers order, connect, and balance type. It is the first impression that engages viewers. Without immediate visual interest, communication ceases; the intended typographic messages are not received. Microtypography refers to typesetting essentials and details. Designers transform plain text into a typographic system—a hierarchy, with optical emphasis and strategic variation. Letterform, word, line, and paragraph dynamics demand acute attention. A principal micro factor is spacing, which includes kerning and tracking. Aesthetic tailoring, as in refining punctuation and ragging, are other micro components. Microtypography ensures refined compositions with considered type settings. Projects are free of distractions and missteps that inhibit reading and communication. The microtypographic level is often undetected by viewers (a sign of its achievement). Macro- and microtypography are mutually dependent. The success of the whole (macro) depends on its parts (micro).

In this student project, choreographed letterforms perform the song “Que Sera” by Wax Tailor. The motion sequence visualizes sound and voice. One-off typographic arrangements in many typefaces shape scenes. Graphic elements frame the viewing area and support typographic action.

strom strandell

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T Definition & Function

TYPE IN CONTEXT

In Practice

Different text in wide-ranging mediums for assorted viewers provides extensive typographic options. Designers might navigate multiple mediums or specialize in one or a limited few. Typography connects all. Numerous spreads with examples and captions follow to exhibit the diversity of typographic practice.

An elegant poster has limited and striking typography. WB (Werner Bischof) set in Typonine Stencil is in distinct contrast to the photograph. The color commands attention, and the letterform anatomy defines the alignment of subordinate text. The B stem, for example, is the main axis for logos and text, set in sans serif Akzidenz-Grotesk.

sensus design factory Environmental type engages physical space. The permanent installation at the University of Washington School of Business echoes a link between business and change. Typeset in Trade Gothic, stainless-steel letterforms in the stone flooring spell “change” along with synonyms like “adapt,” “innovate,” and “transform.” On each floor, words outside of the elevator doors connect with those inside the elevator. Revealed are phrases such as “global change” and “manage change.”

karen cheng kristine matthews 16

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

These expressively illustrated pieces are fine examples of type as image. Miscellaneous letterforms interact playfully. Just one element of a larger campaign for the bar Le Buro, the spirited typographic works enchant.

inventaire

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Approximately 5,000 letters by composer Felix Mendelssohn comprise an edition of books. Book spines feature TheSans (from the superfamily Thesis) in a range of weights. A landscape inspired by Mendelssohn’s music in soft shades of green and yellow appears when the volumes sit side by side. Connecting them provides a distinct surprise.

take off—media services

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

Diverse applications from buttons to public spaces comprise the concept-driven campaign Everything is O K . M I N E ™ explains the project as “a kind of social design experiment in subversive positivism. It explores the relationship between medium and message, challenges accepted modes of communication, and provides everyday citizens with tools for social commentary.” A consistent system of color and type— a trio of Helvetica, Trade Gothic, and Dot Matrix—unify elements across mediums.

mine ™ The Ramblas Tapas Bar logotype features the typeface Augustus. A speech bubble cleverly replaces the counter of R with a second bubble off its leg. The shapes interact and suggest the social exchange that results from sharing many small plates with others versus having one apiece while dining.

dan becker Helvetica capitals present a durable façade in the logotype for Compagnie La Lucette, a boutique real estate company. It stands solidly with modified letterforms like the “ette” in Lucette; the technique links characters and adds unique detail.

euro rscg c&o The round forms and clean lines of the typeface Avant Garde shape the logotype for the U K marketing firm Fab. Color and transparency add liveliness and suggest themes of interaction and exchange.

el studio / pete rossi

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

Type expresses sentiments and creates joy. A collection of everyday letterpress cards reminds us that even simple gestures merit typographic attention. Pictured typefaces include Archer and Futura, as well as a custom face seen in “Word,” inspired by Franklin Gothic.

walk up press The typeface Akzidenz-Grotesk adds practical charm to the annual report for staffing agency Brunel International. Type size, weight, and color establish hierarchy. The dominant red text is unexpected, sharing brief statistics in an unusual manner. It adds notice and delivers company background boldly.

g2k / matthijs van leeuwen

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

A data-driven poster, titled Celestial Events of the Heavens, tracks the moon’s cycle and orbit. The subject matter inspires the radial structure and deep blue tones. Type settings, in Centennial and Gotham, are minimal and elegant. Lines extend like rays and call out key astral events. Oriented parallel to the eye, the text is readable from left to right on horizontal, not angled, baselines.

luke langhus 24

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Constructed letterforms creatively demonstrate an alternate method of using typefaces. A template set in the sans serif face Interstate is the foundation for constructing the graphic letterforms. The technique results in an eye-catching poster for the School of Visual Arts.

mirko ilić corp.

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

The Fathoms Deep L P by the Tunnel displays weathered hand lettering in the title. The technique integrates text with image. Delicate type set in Centaur is quiet and dignified. Red numerals in Gingko Fraktur add a shot of color.

patrick l crawford design

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

A bold color palette and delicate

The serif typeface Plantin lists design

pattern set the stage for this simple

services offered on a promotional

sans serif and serif combination.

mailer. Repurposing antique postcards,

The condensed sans serif Chalet

type blends with the vintage cards

Comprimé suggests sureness, and

and preserves a historical look. The

the serif Miller adds polish. The

neutral sans serif Helvetica discreetly

contrast is clear, the information

conveys contact information.

conveyed with ease. A beautiful ampersand adds an extra touch

collective approach

of elegance to the design.

naden / mesker design co.

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

The Tinkering Monkey website is open and accessible. Main navigational links in sans serif Underground lie in the header. An uppercase setting plus color clarifies the site structure. Headings and subheads, such as “Taking the heat” and “We start tinkering,” in the serif Rooney Web combine well with Underground. Both typefaces have warm personalities.

paula chang

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The package design for Dulce Vida, a 100-proof, 100% organic tequila, is contemporary and tasteful. The brand name in the Blackletter serif Brauhaus Alternate conveys confidence. Direct and refined, the versatile sans serif Flama accompanies the graphic logotype.

foxtrot bravo alpha (fba)

T Y P E I N C O N T E X T In Practice

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS 32 Anatomy

& Terminology

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS

Anatomy & Terminology

Understanding typography fundamentals includes learning its terminology (the language of type), anatomy (the parts of type), and architecture (the framework of type). Designers share common terms that identify typographic building blocks. Basic terminology is typically constant across mediums, which builds mutual connections from one to another. For example, all typefaces, regardless of their diversity, share anatomical parts and details. A serif is always a serif in digital, print, or environmental projects. Knowing well the parts that comprise typographic practice aids type selection and use. Best expression comes with intimate knowledge of the essential elements, which include characters, measures, and styles. Typographic results arise through the considered manipulation of the essential elements. Cultivating an understanding and gaining proficiency begins with learning basic terminology, anatomy, and architecture.

Many typographic terms originate from metal typesetting days when typographers and printers set lead type slugs (cast-metal sorts) by hand to form words, lines, and paragraphs. They shape much of the terminology now used to describe type anatomy and measure.

A B C D E F G H I J

Beard/ Bevel Face Feet Groove Nick Point Size/Body Size Set Width Shank Shoulder Type Height / Height to Paper 0.918 inch (2.3 cm)

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

G LY P H S A N D C H A R A C T E R S

Glyphs Glyphs comprise all marks in a typeface from letterforms and numerals to punctuation and symbols. For instance, a diacritic (accent mark) is a glyph, not a character. It combines with a letterform to create a character, as in ´ (acute) + e = é. Characters A character is a typographic element such as a letterform, numeral, or punctuation mark. Typefaces might have multiple versions of each character represented by glyphs. For example, the lowercase g character can have three glyphs: single story g, double story g, and small cap G . The term “alternates” (or alternate characters) applies to the variants.

Select Glyphs Alright Sans

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

T H E PA R T S O F T Y P E

HOOK

APEX

EAR

D O U B L E S TO RY ARM X-HEIGHT

LINK BASELINE

BOWL CROSSBAR

AXIS LO O P

ASCENDER SHOULDER

EYE CHIN

SPINE

X-HEIGHT BASELINE

SERIF

SPUR

STEM

FINIAL

S WA S H

D OT

APERTURE

COUNTER

C R OTC H

FLAG

X-HEIGHT BASELINE

O V E R S H O OT TA I L

LEG ARC OF STEM

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

TERMINAL

DESCENDER

A Aperture An aperture (open counter)

D Descender A descender is the part of

is the partially enclosed white space

lowercase letterforms—g, j, p, q, and y—

in letterforms such as C and S, as

that falls below the baseline.

the baseline or above the cap height or

Dot A dot (tittle) is the rounded mark above the lowercase i and j.

V, v. It gives the optical sense that such forms are the same size as those sitting

letterform, where two strokes meet, as in A and W.

slight character portion that falls below x-height. Examples are A, a, O, o, and

well as n and e. Apex An apex is the top point of a

O Overshoot Overshoot (overhang) is the

flush on the baseline. Double story Double story refers to specific letterform variations that

S Serif A serif is a small finishing detail

Arc of Stem An arc of stem is a curved

have upper and lower closed or open

stroke that flows smoothly into a straight

counters. For example, the lowercase

stroke. Examples include f, j, and t.

g in some typefaces has a bowl plus

Shoulder A shoulder is the downward

loop. Another double story letterform

curved stroke that extends off a stem,

Arm An arm is a short horizontal or

is the lowercase a. It features a lower

as in h, m, and n.

vertical stroke attached to another

closed bowl with an upper aperture.

on one end, such as E, F, and L.

Spine A spine is the primary curving

E Ear An ear is a small stroke that

stroke of the S.

Ascender An ascender is the part of

extends from the bowl of the double

lowercase letterforms—b, d, f, h, k, and l—

story lowercase g.

Spur A spur is a one-sided, small finishing

that rises above the x-height.

detail that slightly extends from a primary Eye An eye is the closed counter space

Axis An axis is the invisible line that

stress from oblique to vertical.

stroke, as in the uppercase E, G, and S.

specific to the lowercase e. Stem A stem is the primary vertical

bisects character tops and bottoms at the thinnest points. It indicates character

at the start and end of strokes.

F Flag A flag is the horizontal stroke

stroke of a letterform.

found on the numeral 5. Stroke A stroke is any curved, straight,

B Bowl A bowl is the curved character

Finial A finial is the curved and tapered

or diagonal line that constructs characters.

stroke that encloses counters, as seen

finishing stroke seen in the lowercase

Arms, legs, and stems are specific

in a, b, g, and p. Bowls are closed or

a, c, and e.

stroke types.

open, depending on whether or not the curve connects to the stem.

H Hook A hook is the curved stroke in a terminal, as in the lowercase f and r.

C Chin A chin connects the arm and spur of the uppercase G.

Swash A swash is an embellished stroke that replaces a serif or terminal to create a swash character, a decorative form

L Leg A leg is the short, diagonal

that is regarded as lively and elegant.

stroke that sweeps downward in Counter A counter (counterform) is

T Tail A tail is a downward finishing stroke.

the letterforms K and R.

The uppercase Q typically features a

the enclosed white space in characters such as b, d, and o. An open counter

Link A link is the connecting stroke

(aperture) is the partially enclosed

between the bowl and loop of the

letterforms with legs—like K and R—

white space in characters such as

double story lowercase g.

sometimes have curved tails that fluidly

C and S, as well as n and e.

distinct, often decorative, tail. Uppercase

extend from the diagonal stroke. Loop A loop is the enclosed or

Crossbar A crossbar (cross stroke)

partially enclosed counter of the

Terminal A terminal is the curved or

is the horizontal bar that connects

double story lowercase g. It falls

straight end of finishing strokes, as seen

two strokes (A and H), crosses stems

below the baseline and connects

in a, c, f, j, r, and y. Terminal styles include

(f and t), or bisects stems (E and F).

via a link to the upper bowl.

ball, beak, and teardrop (lachrymal).

Crotch A crotch is the acute inside point where two strokes meet, as in V.

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

A Marc Chagall monograph detail

Par is a book celebrating African

offers a look at letterform anatomy.

Americans who fought segregation

Serif Plantagenet Cherokee has the

to play golf at top levels. The title,

double story letterforms a and g.

set in Gravur Condensed, features

Adnate (bracketed) serifs extend

modified counters, which are enclosed

fluidly with curved stem connec-

or partially enclosed white spaces

tions, as in h and l—their bottoms

in characters that aid legibility.

are cupped. The a and c also feature

Such a look creates a clean diecut

teardrop (lachrymal) terminals.

without sacrificing readability.

sensus design factory

bløk design

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The Mariola Andonegui Arte Cultura Patrimonio logotype activates letterform counters. The extracted counter spaces from the typeface Century Gothic provide graphic notice. The method deepens the aesthetic and adds dynamic effect.

lsdspace

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

THE FRAMEWORK OF TYPE

ASCENDER LINE

ASCENT

C A P L I N E

M E A N L I N E

CAP HEIGHT

X-HEIGHT

BASELINE

DESCENDER LINE

DESCENT

LEADING

BASELINE

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

A Ascender Line The ascender line marks

D Descender Line The descender line

BASELINE ALIGNMENT

the height or highest point of ascenders.

marks the lowest point of descenders.

Ascent Ascent is the maximum

Descent Descent is the maximum

which letterforms, words, lines, and

letterform height from the baseline

letterform distance below the baseline.

paragraphs sit. Baseline alignment

Baselines are imaginary lines on

beyond the cap line.

refers to a calculated system of

L Leading Leading (line spacing) B Baseline The baseline is the imaginary

horizontal guides at equally spaced

is the vertical distance from one

vertical intervals that underlie typo-

line on which letterforms, words, lines,

baseline to the next measured

graphic layouts. A baseline alignment

and paragraphs sit.

in points. The term derives from

system designates related positions

C Cap Height Cap height is the distance from the baseline to cap line that

metal typesetting days when lead

for all type, no matter the range of

strips were set between lines of

point sizes. Baselines enable consis-

type to adjust vertical spacing.

tent horizontal alignment across

measures uppercase letterform height

compositions. Lines of type coincide;

M Mean Line The mean line (mid line)

they also back up from page-to-

marks the height or highest point

page if viewed one atop another

Cap Line The cap line marks

of lowercase letterforms minus

(see chapter 5).

the height or highest point of

ascenders and descenders.

(without diacritics).

uppercase letterforms.

X X-height X-height is the distance from baseline to mean line, or, typically, the top of the lowercase x. It measures lowercase letterform height minus ascenders and descenders. X-height conveys perceived typeface size.

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

M E A S U R E , C O N T R A S T, A N D S T R E S S

Point Size

An em is a typographic measure equal

Point size (type size) refers to the body

to the point size (type size) used.

size of a character—not its appearing size.

An em in a 6-point typeface is 6 point;

Typefaces that share matching point sizes

in a 12-point typeface it is 12 point.

do not always have the same optical size. For example, same-sized typefaces with

1 INCH

tall x-heights (the distance from baseline 6-point em

to mean line, or, typically, the top of the lowercase x) look larger than faces with small x-heights.

12-point em

1 PICA 6 PICAS

Body Size En

Body size is the area a character inhabits

An en is a typographic measure equal

plus added white space surrounding it.

to half an em. An en in an 8-point type-

Body height equals point size. The term

face is 4 point, in a 16-point typeface

body size originates in metal-typesetting

it is 8 point.

days when lead-type blocks called slugs (or cast-metal sorts) contained characters.

1 POINT

Lead slugs had bases slightly larger than 4-point en

the character size.

72 P O I N T S Appearing Size 8-point en 1 pica = 12 points = 0.166 inch (4.2 mm)

Appearing size refers to optical size or perceived character size; 12-point

Pica

type in one face might look larger

A pica (abbreviated p) is a typographic

or smaller than the same measure

1 point = 0.0138 inch (0.35 mm)

measure equal to 12 points. Picas

in other typefaces.

12 points = 1 pica = 0.166 inch (4.2 mm)

measure line length.

6 picas = 72 points = 1 inch (2.5 cm)

Sidebearings

72 points = 6 picas = 1 inch (2.5 cm) Point

Digital characters have slight white

A point (abbreviated pt) is a typographic

spaces on their left and right sides

measure equal to 0.0138 inch (0.35 mm).

called sidebearings. Defining the

Points measure type size and leading

distance between characters, side-

(line spacing).

bearings are substantial factors in typeface design. The term set width refers to the combined width of the character and sidebearings.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Contrast Contrast refers to the relationship between thick and thin strokes. Serif typefaces such as Bodoni and Didot have a high thick-to-thin stroke contrast. Sans serif typefaces such Jenson

Jenson

as Trade Gothic and Univers feature a low to uniform thick-to-thin stroke contrast. Stress Stress refers to the invisible axis that bisects character tops and bottoms at the thinnest points. Orientation is

Bembo 110-point Type Size

oblique or vertical. Stress is detectible Baskerville

using the lowercase o as a guide.

Epic and Alright Sans

C H A R A C T E R W I DT H Baskerville Clarendon

Didot

Akzidenz-Grotesk

S E T W I DT H

Rockwell

Univers E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

SERIF AND SANS SERIF

Serif A serif is a small finishing detail at the start and end of strokes. Basic serif constructions are reflexive and transitive; bilateral and unilateral; abrupt and adnate. Variants include cupped, hairline, rounded, slab, and wedge. The first roman serif typefaces appeared in the fifteenth century. Typifying the Humanist typeface category, the style was inspired by Italian handwriting called “lettera antica.” Other serif typeface categories include Old Style, Transitional, Modern, and Slab (see chapter 3). Sans Serif Sans serif refers to type without serifs and very low to uniform thick-to-thin

Serif

stroke contrast. The first known sans serif

Epic

typeface by William Caslon I V appeared in 1816. Vincent Figgins coined the term sans serif roughly twenty years later. Sans serif typeface categories are Grotesque, Geometric, Humanist, and Transitional (see chapter 3).

Sans Serif Alright Sans

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Serifs are small finishing details

T Y P E FA C E , F O N T, S U P E R FA M I LY

at the start and end of strokes. Serif constructions are reflexive

A typeface is the consistent design, or

and transitive; bilateral and

distinct visual form, of a type family. It

unilateral; abrupt and adnate.

is a cohesive system of related shapes

Abrupt

Cupped, hairline, rounded, slab,

created by a type designer. Characters

Bilateral

Unilateral

and wedge are serif variations.

such as letterforms, numerals, and

Reflexive

punctuation share formal attributes. Abrupt Serif

In metal typesetting days, a font was

Abrupt (unbracketed) serifs

a complete character set of a typeface

extend sharply with angled

in one point size and style—12-point

stem connections.

Centaur roman, for example. A font can also describe family members com-

Adnate Serif

prising typefaces such as light, regular,

Adnate (bracketed) serifs

and bold. For instance, Bembo is a

Adnate

extend fluidly with curved

typeface, Bembo italic a font. Digitally

Bilateral

Unilateral

stem connections.

speaking, font refers to a computer

Reflexive

Transitive

file that makes a typeface available for Bilateral Serif

use and production. Superfamilies are

Bilateral serifs extend off

full-bodied typeface families that can

both sides of the stroke.

include serif, semi serif, sans serif, semi sans, and slab serif faces. Extensive

Cupped

Unilateral Serif

weights and widths, as well as optical

Unilateral serifs extend off

styles, are common. Unified by concept

one side of the stroke.

and form, superfamilies add unique flavor to typographic works, all con-

Hairline Reflexive Serif

nected by family ties. See chapter 3

Reflexive serifs break slightly

for more on typefaces.

at the stroke then continue off it. They are typically evident in roman typefaces. Transitive Serif Rounded

Slab

Transitive serifs flow smoothly out of the stroke without pause. They are typically evident in italic typefaces and most often unilateral.

Wedge

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

CASE AND NUMERALS

Uppercase Uppercase refers to capital letterforms (majuscules). They share uniform heights called cap height. The term uppercase originates from letterpress printing. Sectioned type cases held uppercase and lowercase slugs; uppercase forms sat in the upper part. Uppercase Lowercase Lowercase refers to small letterforms (minuscules). They differ from uppercase in that they have more variation in form, as well as ascenders and descenders, which aid readability. The term lowercase originates from letterpress printing. Sectioned type cases held uppercase and lowercase slugs; lowercase forms sat in the lower part. Small Caps

Lowercase

Small caps are uniquely designed uppercase letterforms that share with lowercase a similar weight and x-height (small caps are typically slightly taller). When elements such as acronyms and abbreviations are in body text, small caps replace full capitals, which are optically too large next to lowercase letterforms. Use small caps only if offered in a selected typeface—not all contain

Small Caps

them. Reducing full caps to smallcap size makes them look too thin and narrow. “Fake small caps” are awkward and discordant.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Lining Figures

Proportional Lining

Proportional Figures

Lining figures (titling figures) are

Proportional figures are numerals

numerals that are the same height

with variable width or body size.

as uppercase letterforms. Unlike

For instance, the numeral 1 has a

non-lining figures, they do not have

narrower width than the numeral 3.

ascenders or descenders. Lining

They accommodate many texts

figures are well suited in combi-

except numerical data or columns

nation with full capitals.

of numerals that require vertical alignment (in which case, tabular

Proportional Non-lining

Tabular Lining

Non-lining Figures

figures are apt). Proportional

Non-lining figures (old-style or

figures may be lining or non-lining.

text figures) are numerals with variable widths, ascenders, and

Tabular Figures

descenders. Some sit on the base-

Tabular figures are monospaced

line (0, 1, 2, 6, 8); others fall below

numerals, meaning all share the

it (3, 4, 5, 7, 9). They share weight

same character width or fixed

and x-height with lowercase letter-

width. They accommodate numer-

forms and small caps. Non-lining

ical data or columns of numerals

figures serve body and continuous

that require vertical alignment, as

text well. They blend fittingly with

in tables or charts. Tabular figures

lowercase without commanding

may be lining or non-lining.

attention like lining figures, which are hulking in such situations and disrupt fluid reading.

Inferiors and Superiors Inferiors and superiors are small characters used for special text

Tabular Non-lining

such as footnotes, mathematical notations, and scientific formulas. Inferiors (subscripts) fall below the baseline. Superiors (superscripts) rise above the baseline and hang from or top-align to the ascender line. Inferiors and superiors are

Inferiors

specially designed and proportioned forms, not reduced fullsize characters, which appear too thin when scaled.

Superiors

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

ANALPHABETICS AND TYPE STYLES

Punctuation

Analphabetics are characters used with the alphabet and are not included in its alphabetic order (or A B C s). They include punctuation, diacritics (accent or diacritical marks), and symbols. Punctuation marks clarify text structure and meaning. Common examples are apostrophes, commas, and periods. Diacritics, such as acute (´), circumflex (ˆ), and umlaut (¨), are auxiliary marks that combine with letterforms and indicate a distinct sound or vocal emphasis. Symbols, such as arithmetical and currency signs, as well as copyright and registered marks, are special-purpose characters.

‹ ›

SELECTED READINGS The Chicago Manual of Style

〈〉 ‘ ’ * ʳ | ¦ : , { } † ‡ … — – ! ¡ « » · ( ) . ' " ? ¿ “ ” ; / \ [ ]

Symbols

& @ © ¤ ¢ $ € £ ¥ ° ★ μ # ¶ ® § ™

angle brackets apostrophe (single quote) asterisk bullet bar (pipe) broken bar colon comma curly brackets dagger double dagger ellipsis em dash en dash exclamation mark inverted exclamation mark guillemets hyphen

Á Ő

period (full stop)

Ȗ ȗ

prime and double prime

Ĕ ğ

question mark

Ǩ ř

inverted question mark

Ç ş

quotation marks

Ŷ ŵ

semicolon

Ė ṅ

solidus

À Z

reverse solidus

Ā ī

square brackets

Ą ę Å ů

÷ = ∞ − × % + ± √ ≠

currency cent colón dollar euro pound yen degree dingbat micro, mu octothorp (hash mark) pilcrow registered section trademark Diacritics

midpoint parentheses

Arithmetical Signs The Typographic Desk Reference

at copyright

interrobang

The University of Chicago Press

Theodore Rosendorf

ampersand

divide

Ã ỹ

equal

Ü ẅ

infinity

Ţ ș

minus

Ṭ ṛ

multiply

percent plus plus-minus radical unequal

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

´˝ ˘ ˇ ¸ ^ ˙ ` ¯ ˛ ˚ Ə ~ ¨

acute and double acute arch breve caron cedilla circumflex dot above (overdot) grave and double grave macron ogonek ring schwa tilde umlaut (diaeresis) undercomma

̣ _

underdot lowline

Style is typeface posture, weight, and width. Posture Posture is the angle of letterforms relative to the baseline. Roman letterforms are upright Posture Univers 55 Regular, 56 Oblique

with a vertical stance. (The term roman also refers to the regular weight of a typeface.) Posture also includes italics and obliques, which typically sit at a 12- to 15-degree slant from the roman position. Derived from handwriting, the first italic appeared in Italy during the fifteenth century. Venetian printer Aldus Manutius introduced the style as an alternative to roman body

Weight Univers 45 Light, 55 Regular, 65 Bold, 75 Black

text. Used in pocket-sized books, the narrower italic form allowed more words per line, which saved space and money. Italics and obliques now create emphasis within roman text rather than acting as substitutes for it. They are precise in construction and proportion. Serif typefaces typically have true italics—harmonious partners to romans with structurally different designs. Sans serifs traditionally feature obliques, which

Width

are aptly sloped versions of roman forms.

Univers 53 Extended, 55 Regular, 57 Condensed, 59 Ultra Condensed

Many contemporary sans serifs have true italics, and some serifs have obliques. Weight

USING TYPE STYLES

Weight refers to stroke thickness. Regular (book or roman) and bold are traditional weights

Use only available styles—posture, weight,

common to most typefaces. Additional weights

and width—of chosen typefaces; these have

include thin, light, medium, black, and ultra.

been carefully considered and proportioned by type designers. Avoid relying on software

Width

conversions or manual modifications; select

Width (how wide the letterforms stand)

italic or oblique fonts from within the type-

indicates horizontal letterform proportion.

face. Avoid modifying roman styles by slant-

Condensed is a typical width narrow in

ing, thus creating objectionable “fake italics.”

appearance. Compressed and extra-

Adding strokes to vary type weight is poor

condensed are others. Extended refers to

practice. Equally so is skewing or stretching

widths with markedly broad appearances.

letterforms to make narrow or wide alternatives, which diminish proper proportions and typeface integrity. Choose typefaces with a stylistic range that best meets needs. Those fittingly selected and expressed with skilled treatment produce quality outcomes. E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

Identity materials for Emigre Film feature the

Inspired by Constructivism, promotional

non-lining numerals 5 and 2. Set in the serif face

materials for Glasgow rock band Sindûstry

Matrix, the elegant numerals contrast with the

are bold in execution. A circumflex (ˆ) above

remaining text, which appears in sans serifs

the U is for graphic effect not pronunciation.

Trade Gothic, Citizen, and Antitled. Such type-

The diacritic is structurally sharp. It is a

face distinction makes 52 a focal point, even

distinct visual note—typographic form

though it is small in scale next to Emigre.

used with dramatic intent. The typeface is Helvetica Ultra Condensed.

bløk design pete rossi Letterforms, diacritics, and punctuation marks provide meaning and curiosity on the Temas de Psicanálise (Themes of Psychoanalysis) covers. The characters, set in Century Schoolbook, are key elements serving as personified graphics that support book titles.

fba.

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

L I G AT U R E S

A ligature is the union of two or more characters. Varieties include stylistic, lexical, and discretionary. Stylistic Ligatures Stylistic ligatures resolve unwanted character collisions that occur when certain letterforms combine. Such ligatures deliver aesthetic refinement.

Stylistic Ligatures

Common examples are fi, ffi, and fl. Lexical Ligatures Lexical ligatures (diphthongs) represent composite vowels such as æ (aesc) and œ (ethel). Discretionary Ligatures Several typefaces also contain discretionary ligatures. They

Lexical Ligatures

add stylistic grace with ornate or historical nuance. Options include ct and st. Ampersand Another ligature is the ampersand, which symbolizes the Latin word et, meaning “and.” Some ampersand variations clearly echo their heritage as e and t ligatures; others vary indirectly, with little e and t resemblance.

Discretionary Ligatures

Ampersands

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The Logik logotype conveys connections via a custom gi ligature, which also unites with the k. It is apt for a company that analyzes text documents and reveals links among them. The modified typeface is Century Schoolbook.

idapostle A specially designed ri ligature enriches the aesthetic and personality of the Carissa Pelleteri logotype, which is set in Austin Bold. A modified r terminal replaces the dot (tittle) of the i and shapes the letterform.

jesse reed Swash characters a and e in the serif Minion add elegance to the Havana advertisem*nt. The st discretionary ligature in “Lifestyle” fits well with the swash characters and ties together the treatment. The embellished letterforms also contrast with the geometric background and sans serif typeface Rimouski. Such visual distinction adds prominence.

face.

E S S E N T I A L E L E M E N T S Anatomy & Terminology

ON TYPEFACES 57 Categories

of Type70 Selection Considerations76 In Combination

O N T Y P E FAC E S

Typefaces exist in many shapes, which can make unending configurations. Anything imagined is available—from alphabetic and decorative to symbolic and experimental. With many choices, make quality selections and use what exists with discipline and skill.

A Blackletter Halja, Michael Parson, 2008

B Brush Lettering Filmotype Atlas, Charles Gibbons, 2011

C Calligraphic Alana, Laura Worthington, 2011

D Chromatic Rosewood, Carl Crossgrove, Kim Buker Chansler, Carol Twombly, 1994

E Distressed Stomper, Matthew Aaron Desmond, 1997

F Experimental Hunter, Si Scott, 2009

G Incised Albertus, Berthold Wolpe, 1932–1940

H Mathematical Universal Mathematical Pi, Linotype Design Studio, 1990

Monospaced Orator, John Scheppler, 1962

Ornamental Adobe Wood Type Ornaments, Barbara Lind, Joy Redick, 1990

K Pixellated Pixeleite, Rafael Neder, 2005

L Period/Retro Peignot, A . M . Cassandre, 1937 M Sans Serif Heroic, Silas Dilworth, 2008

N Serif Newzald, Kris Sowersby, 2008

O Slab Serif Caecilia, Peter Matthias Noordzij, 1990

P Stencil A R G N , Greg Ponchak, 2011 Q Symbol Carta, Lynne Garell, 1986

The terms typeface and font are commonly interchanged (and occasionally disputed). A typeface is the consistent design, or distinct visual form, of a type family. It is a cohesive system of related shapes created by a type designer. Characters, such as letterforms, numerals, and punctuation, share formal attributes. Font has multiple definitions. In metal typesetting days, a font was a complete character set of a typeface in one point size and style, such as 12-point Centaur roman. A font can also describe family members comprising typefaces, such as light, regular, and bold. For instance, Bembo is a typeface, but Bembo italic is a font. Digitally speaking (and in common practice), font refers to a computer file that makes a typeface available for use and production. A font scalable to any point size embodies the design of a typeface. Designers select typefaces and work with fonts. Typefaces influence communication through appearance and legibility. Aesthetics provide first impressions and express personalities, such as friendly, professional, or sweet and youthful, masculine, or utilitarian. Connotation, or implied meaning, inherent in typefaces plays a significant role, be it positive or negative. Apt typefaces directly engage viewers and send convincing messages. Legibility refers to the recognition of single characters and their relationships when set side by side. Type designers carefully construct characters and pay special attention to space, notably counters and sidebearings. Counters are enclosed or partially enclosed white spaces in characters, sidebearings the built-in space on their left and right sides. Character shape plus white space (counters and sidebearings) aid letterform recognition. Legibility relies on the invisible presence of space. Choose legible typefaces and—with attentive typesetting— shape readable text. Some typefaces intentionally challenge legibility. Artistry and expression drive utility, not communication. It is exciting to see such creativity for lovers of letterforms!

R Typewriter American Typewriter, Joel Kaden, Tony Stan, 1974

S Unicase Democratica, Miles Newlyn, 1991

T Wood Type Quentin, U R W Studio, 2008 O N T Y P E FAC E S

Typefaces are key tools of visual communication. Designers assemble language and form with them. Applied adeptly, typefaces create lasting effects. Take care when handling them, and respect their makers. Invest in them, and gradually build a quality typeface library. Stated gracefully by mid-twentieth-century designer Will Burtin: “Each typeface is a piece of history, like a colored stone chip in a mosaic that depicts the development of human communication. Each typeface is also a visual record of the person who created it— his skill as a designer, his philosophy as an artist, his feeling for the relationship between the details of each letter, and the resulting impressions of an alphabet or a text line.” 1 Typefaces are indispensable; they conduct visible language. 1 Rosen, Ben. Type and Typography: The Designer’s Type Book. Rev. ed. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1976.

Simple geometric shapes are the basis of Shape Font. Intended for use in headlines and titles, the typeface challenges legibility. The vertical-reading phrase “Optical Art Meets Typography” captures the concept behind the design.

rui ribeiro A graphic typeface pushes legibility on a poster that promotes an experimental type lecture at the University of Texas at Arlington. The designer states: “The modular typeface is composed entirely and ludicrously of circles and provides a playful visual play of form, counterform, legibility, and illegibility.” The top portion of the poster delivers lecture details, the bottom, the key from A – Z and 0–9.

tore terrasi

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

O N T Y P E FAC E S

Categories of Type

SELECTED READINGS The Elements of Typographic Style Robert Bringhurst Manuel français de typographie moderne Francis Thibaudeau Printing Types: An Introduction Alexander S. Lawson “Type Classification” Twentieth Century Graphic Communication: Technology, Society and Culture Annual Conference of the Friends of St Bride Printing Library, London Catherine Dixon

Identifying and organizing more than 550 years of typography and myriad typefaces is a challenging task (not without debate among typophiles) that has been taken on by many throughout the years, including Francis Thibaudeau, Maximilien Vox, Alexander Lawson, Robert Bringhurst, and Catherine Dixon. Classification began in the nineteenth century, by printers seeking to note lineage and classify typefaces during a period marked by many new styles. Various classification systems exist, each with organizational methods based on factors such as historical development, formal attributes, and intended use. These methods are points of departure, not perfect plans. Many typefaces fit easily in categories; others overlap in multiple ways or escape classification entirely. Regardless of the system (and the limitations of each), cataloging typefaces is a valuable exercise. Classification shapes context and provides descriptive terms, which aids general identification and selection. Presented here is a scheme that provides a basic means of identifying and distinguishing typefaces for beginning readers. Dedicated only to serifs and sans serifs suited for most text, it is not a comprehensive model covering all typefaces. Formal traits and historical development shape the fundamental typeface categories: 1. Serif—Humanist, Old Style, Transitional, and Modern; 2. Slab Serif—Egyptian and Clarendon; and 3. Sans Serif—Grotesque, Geometric, Humanist, and Transitional.

O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

C AT E G O R I E S

HUMANIST SERIF

OLD STYLE SERIF

SERIF

First Appeared

Humanist

Fifteenth century

Fifteenth and sixteenth centuries

Transitional

Archetype

Modern

Jenson

Bembo

Nicolas Jenson, 1470

Francesco Griffo, 1495

Egyptian

Humanist serifs are the original roman

Old Style serifs are more refined,

Clarendon

typefaces. They are strikingly different

with smoother and rounder forms

from Blackletter, the first typeface

than Humanist serifs. Because of

Old Style

SLAB SERIF

SANS SERIF

style (see chapter 1). Inspired by Italian

improvements in type-making tools,

Grotesque

handwriting, called “lettera antica,”

the thick-to-thin stroke contrast is

Geometric

Humanist serifs have a low thick-to-thin

more apparent. The crossbar of

Humanist

stroke contrast and bracketed serifs.

the lowercase e is horizontal. The

Transitional

The lowercase e features an angled,

stress of the o shifts vertically,

rather than horizontal, crossbar. Round

though not fully so.

forms such as o have an oblique stress. Typical Characteristics Typical Characteristics

· · · · ·

Low thick-to-thin stroke contrast Oblique stress Angled crossbar on the lowercase e Bracketed serifs

· · · · ·

Medium thick-to-thin stroke contrast Oblique stress Horizontal crossbar on the lowercase e Bracketed serifs Round open characters

Small x-height Examples Examples

Centaur Bruce Rogers, 1915

Vendetta John Downer, 1999

Berling

Galliard

Granjon

Karl-Erik Forsberg, 1951–1958 Matthew Carter, 1978

Maiola Veronika Burian, 2005

Hermann Zapf, Akira Kobayashi, 2005

Lynton Leslie Usherwood, 1980

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Aldus Nova

Guardi Reinhard Haus, 1986

George William Jones, 1928

Sabon Jan Tschichold, 1967

TRANSITIONAL SERIF

MODERN SERIF

EGYPTIAN SLAB SERIF

First Appeared

Eighteenth century

Nineteenth century

Archetype

Baskerville

Didot

Rockwell

John Baskerville, 1754

Firmin Didot, 1784

Frank Hinman Pierpont, 1934 Egyptian slab serif typefaces have a very

Inspired by engraving, Transitional serif

Modern serif typefaces have a very high

characters are mechanical in construction,

thick-to-thin stroke contrast. Advances

low thick-to-thin or uniform stroke contrast.

with medium to high thick-to-thin stroke

in letterform making and printing methods

Heavy and square unbracketed serifs easily

contrast. Bracketed serifs are sharper

made possible the superfine and now

identify them. Historically, their heft worked

and refined—far more than Humanist

unbracketed horizontal serifs that typify

well as display faces, notably for advertising.

and Old Style serifs, yet not extreme, like

Moderns. With vertical stress, characters

Contemporary slabs are typically more

forthcoming Modern typefaces. Round

are well balanced and noticeably upright,

versatile than past models. For example,

characters are open, with tall x-heights.

with slightly condensed proportions.

Archer by Hoefler & Frere-Jones has many

Vertical stress on round forms is barely

weights and true italics that serve bodyTypical Characteristics

oblique to vertical. Typical Characteristics

Medium to high thick-to-thin stroke contrast

· Slight oblique to vertical stress · Horizontal crossbar on the lowercase e · Moderately thin bracketed serifs · Round open characters · Tall x-height

Examples

Examples Arnhem Bonesana Fournier Pierre Simon Fournier, 1924

Photina José Mendoza y Almeida, 1971

· · ·

Vertical stress

Archer

Caecilia

Calvert

stroke contrast Horizontal crossbar on the lowercase e Square unbracketed serifs

Ambroise Examples

Carmen

Hoefler & Frere-Jones, 2008

Eloquent Jason Walcott, 2008

Moderno F B

Walbaum

Peter Matthias Noordzij, 1990

David Berlow with Richard Lipton, 1995

Matthieu Cortat, 2009

Very low to uniform thick-to-thin

Andreu Balius, 2007–2008

Fred Smeijers, 2002

Typical Characteristics

Jean François Porchez, 2001

· ·

to-display text well.

· Very high thick-to-thin stroke contrast · Vertical stress · Horizontal crossbar on the lowercase e · Hairline unbracketed serifs · Tall x-height

Margaret Calvert, 1980

Justus Erich Walbaum, 1800

Dispatch Cyrus Highsmith, 1999–2000

Memphis Rudolf Wolf, 1929

Whitman Kent Lew, 2003–2008 O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

C AT E G O R I E S

CLARENDON SLAB SERIF

G R OT E S Q U E S A N S S E R I F

SERIF

First Appeared

Humanist

Nineteenth century

Old Style Transitional

Archetype

Modern

Clarendon

Akzidenz-Grotesk

Robert Besley, 1845

Günter Gerhard Lange, 1898

SLAB SERIF Egyptian

Clarendon slab serifs feature bracketed

Grotesque styles were the first

Clarendon

serifs and low thick-to-thin stroke contrast.

commercially widespread sans serif

Serifs smoothly transition into strokes,

typefaces—specific to the late nine-

SANS SERIF

a detail making Clarendons appear more

teenth and early twentieth centuries.

Grotesque

refined than Egyptians. A distinct trait

They show little to uniform thick-to-

Geometric

is the bulbous ball terminals seen on

thin stroke contrast. Curved strokes

Humanist

characters such as lowercase c, f, and y.

on letterforms such as c, e, and s end at

Typical Characteristics

Transitional sans serifs, which date

Low thick-to-thin stroke contrast

from the mid-twentieth century.

Transitional

an angle. Grotesque typefaces inspired

· · · · ·

Vertical stress

Bureau Grot (1989–2006) and Bau

Horizontal crossbar on the lowercase e

(2001–2004) are contemporary

Square bracketed serifs

typefaces based on Grotesques.

Round ball terminals Typical Characteristics Examples

Egizio Aldo Novarese, 1955

Oxtail

Stag

· · ·

Christian Schwartz, 2006

Volta

Basic Commercial Linotype Design Studio, 1900

David Jonathan Ross, 2009

Curved strokes like C end at an angle Examples

Stefan Hattenbach, 2006

· Trilby

Slight thick-to-thin stroke contrast Vertical stress

Bell Gothic Chauncey H. Griffith, 1937

Konrad F. Bauer, Walter Baum, 1956

Franklin Gothic Morris Fuller Benton, 1904

Monotype Grotesque

Scheltersche Grotesk

Frank Hinman Pierpont, 1926 Schelter & Giesecke Foundry, 1880

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

GEOMETRIC SANS SERIF

HUMANIST SANS SERIF

First Appeared

Twentieth century

Archetype

Futura

Gill Sans

Univers

Paul Renner, 1928

Eric Gill, 1927–1930

Adrian Frutiger, 1957

Geometry and modularity inspire

Humanist sans take their inspiration

From the mid-twentieth century on,

Geometric sans serif typefaces.

from Humanist serifs. A handwritten

Transitional sans serifs began as refreshed

Typically based on circles, squares,

influence is evident by the slightly

Grotesques, which are specific to the late

or triangles, they are rational

more (though subtle) thick-to-thin

nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

in construction with uniform

stroke contrast, which distinguishes

Characters feature uniform stroke contrast

stroke contrast. Typical Characteristics

· · ·

TRANSITIONAL SANS SERIF

them from other sans serif typefaces.

and vertical stress. Early Transitional sans

Typically, Humanist sans serifs feature

serifs, such as Helvetica and Univers, have

true italics distinct from romans.

curved letterforms such as c, e, and s that

Uniform stroke contrast

end horizontally rather than an angle. Typical Characteristics

Vertical stress Inspired by geometric shapes

Examples

· Slight oblique to vertical stress · Calligraphic influence · True italics

Oblique italics are common.

Very low thick-to-thin or uniform Typical Characteristics

stroke contrast

Avant Garde Herb Lubalin, Tom Carnase, 1970

Brandon Grotesque

Bryant

Eric Olson, 2002 Mostra Nuova Neutraface

Neutral personality Curved strokes like C end horizontally

· ·

Ron Carpenter, Fabio Haag, 2010 Angus R. Shamal, 1999, 2010

· ·

Dagny Örjan Nordling, Göran Söderström, 2009

Neue Sans André Leonardt, 2007

Corporate S Kurt Weidemann, 1990

Mr Eaves Zuzana Licko, 2009

Aktiv Grotesk

· A R S Maquette

Leska Alexandra Korolkova, 2008

Elido Sibylle Hagmann, 2010

Christian Schwartz, 2002

Examples

Agenda Greg Thompson, 1993–2000

Mark Simonson, 2009

Uniform stroke contrast Vertical stress

Examples

Hannes von Döhren, 2009–2010

· · · ·

Helvetica Max Miedinger with Edüard Hoffmann, 1957

O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

Hand-embossed business cards feature the Humanist serif typeface Centaur. Set solely in tracked uppercase, the typeface is elegant. Capitals are one of Centaur’s finest assets. Subtle changes in type size, color, and value aid hierarchy.

patrick l crawford design

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Old Style typeface Garamond pairs with Benton Sans (a contemporary revival of the 1903 Grotesque typeface News Gothic). Garamond conveys spirited messages framed in colorful talk bubbles. The letterforms are warm and friendly.

addis creson

O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

The Hartney logotype is set in Century

The iconic work for Harper’s Bazaar

Schoolbook, a Transitional serif type-

by famed designer Alexey Brodovitch

face. Lowercase letterforms feature

inspires the Anna McGregor logotype.

a tall x-height and open counters.

The A is grand, typeset in the Modern

The typeface personality is welcoming;

serif Bauer Bodoni. The black and

a touch of italic adds sophistication.

white palette reflects the extreme

Geometric sans serif Futura in limited

contrast inherent in the face.

use complements the serif typeface.

nelson associates niedermeier design

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Web banners for an online course exhibit strong figure-ground relationships. Slab serif typefaces—Giza (an Egyptian slab) with a pinch of Sentinel (a Clarendon slab)— seamlessly interact with closely cropped photographs. Letterforms, numerals, and punctuation function as words, graphic forms, and image carriers.

charles gibbons

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The photograph provides an implied

Grotesque sans serif Akzidenz-Grotesk

vertical axis from which the book

grabs attention. Color identifies the

title Oper Nach Wagner rises. Title

band names—Neat Neat Neat and

and author connect perpendicularly

The Dalles—on the 7" (18 cm) record

and echo the image. Orientation

sleeve. Mixing with graphic elements

and type size variations order the

and photography, type commands

text, set in Futura, the archetype

the design. Its scale and flush-left

of Geometric sans serifs.

alignment give it a solid presence.

take off—media services

falko ohlmer

O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

Classic Transitional sans serif Univers sits convincingly in a poster that promotes a lecture by designer, professor, and author Karen Cheng. Each line of the three-part title “Karen Cheng knows your type” changes weight from top to bottom—65 Bold to 55 Roman to 45 Light.

jesse reed The May Fair Hotel logotype is refined and contemporary. A redrawn version of the Humanist sans serif, Topaz has thin strokes that evoke timeless elegance. Collateral materials extend the logotype and capture the glamour and heritage of the London landmark.

nelson associates O N T Y P E F A C E S Categories of Type

O N T Y P E FAC E S

Selection Considerations

Typeface quality depends on character construction and how well the forms work together. This poster promotes the typeface Skolar, designed by David Březina. Skolar is a hearty text face with strong serifs and tall x-height, which aid reading at small sizes.

Typographer Beatrice Warde wrote: “There are bad types and good types, and the whole science and art of typography begins after the first category has been set aside.” 2 What constitutes a good typeface? It is a system of thoughtfully conceived and constructed characters working together as words, lines, and paragraphs. It is highly legible, with well-considered space built in and around the characters. Good typefaces used with care and creativity serve texts, authors, and readers. Smart selections give designers the precise kit of parts to do this. However, everything is relative. Quality typefaces do not guarantee success—regardless of their legibility or attention to detail. A great face poorly handled still leaves text unreadable, just as ill-chosen typefaces send mixed messages. Conversely, fitting faces of mediocre merit work if typeset well. There are few absolutes. Like much in typography, flexible principles guide the process for choosing and combining typefaces. To begin, start with the text—not the type. Take time to read and grasp it as well as possible. Get a sense of its mood and energy. Pinpoint the main message. Context initiates decision-making. Next, carefully map the text. Note its quantity and variety, or types of text, then order it by importance. Determine the technical needs of a typeface, such as stylistic range (posture, weight, and width) or special features (ligatures, numeral styles, and small caps), to create hierarchy. A project with limited types of text needs less typeface range than one with multiple variables. For example, books are textually rich, with many options such as body text, headings, captions, footers, and folios. When thinking about typefaces, begin with the text largest in quantity, most often body text. An ideal choice is a face designed for extended reading at small sizes in either serif or sans serif. In contrast, posters often contain minimal text, such as titles, dates, and brief descriptions. An attention-grabbing display face might echo the title perfectly, as a modest face conveys supporting text. Think first of the text and its typesetting needs, then make appropriate choices.

david březina 2 Beatrice Warde, “On the Choice of Typeface,” in Texts on Type: Critical Writings on Typography, eds. Steven Heller and Philip B. Meggs (New York: Allworth Press, 2001), 196. 70

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Determine the medium, users, and viewing conditions. Typefaces for environments observed from a distance vary greatly from tablets seen inches away. Those for corporate annual reports differ from children’s books, as do the viewers. The former may lend itself to reserved typefaces set conservatively, the latter to friendly faces set expressively. Short-term assignments might require contemporary faces that speak to presentday social conditions. Trustworthy, classic characters might best assist long-term ventures. Innovative concepts can benefit from custom typefaces. Informed choices are essential. There are vast numbers of typefaces to discover (with many more to come). Regardless of the medium, seek excellent examples. Observing type in practice is a great way to learn.

The name Emily Pilloton set in Gotham Rounded knocks out of a graphic background in a poster promoting a lecture at the Maryland Institute College of Art. The face is friendly and contemporary. A second typeface, Klavika, contrasts Gotham. The sharp sans serif presents supporting text with clarity. A hand-lettered subtitle complements the typefaces.

aggie toppins The One Atlantic wine labels feature a custom typeface designed in collaboration with Darden Studio. It is distinctive and adds value. Letterforms demonstrate a posture shift from roman to oblique that marks the wine type. Color reinforces the typographic nuance.

mucca design

O N T Y P E F A C E S Selection Considerations

Particular media necessitate special consideration. Type for the web, as well as digital devices and gestural interfaces, meet challenges because conditions vary, unlike fixed mediums such as print. Multiple browsers, platforms, and screen sizes present type differently. Typefaces suited to one might not suit another. Expect the unexpected in digital realms. Be flexible and responsive. Digital formats know no bounds. Unlimited virtual space offers potential unseen in other areas. Digitally displayed, quality typography is progressing swiftly. For instance, web font technology advances at a rapid pace and makes available quality typefaces that work seamlessly on screen. Designers have options akin to fine print work minus the technical hurdles that once limited web and digital display type. Barriers across platforms and devices, as well as mediums, are minimized. Demand for and access to first-rate typographic settings (and the technical means to execute it) in digital mediums is growing. Such great typographic potential and invention exists! Typefaces create atmosphere. They spark emotions and express historical, contemporary, or cultural connotations—all before the text is read. Subtle messaging via the physical characteristics of typefaces prompts viewer participation. Some faces are casual or dignified, others mechanical or playful. Univers is neutral and no-nonsense and can be dressed up or down. It looks good in everything. Robust and friendly Clarendon sits firmly without intimidation. Mrs Eaves charms; it is traditional with contemporary flair. A fitting typeface personality makes an impression.

An apt twenty-six typefaces add typographic character to the Alphabetical website. Letterforms from A to Z, each distinct, organize the site, which is a portfolio and news stream fusion. Support text, as seen in the contact information, dates, and headings, are set in Gotham.

alphabetical 72

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

C A A Baskerville revival, Zuzana Licko’s Mrs Eaves is a serif typeface featuring open counters and supple curves. A notable feature is its extensive ligatures. Named after Sarah Eaves, John Baskerville’s housekeeper and later wife, Mrs Eaves is stylish, charismatic, and gracious.

B Robert Besley created the original Clarendon in 1845. (In the 1900s, it was updated by Monotype and again later by Hermann Eidenbenz.) Its distinctive slab serifs make it stand out in display settings. Bracketed serifs and ball terminals contribute to its friendly, stout personality.

C Univers, designed by Adrian Frutiger in 1957, was the first typeface to use a numerical naming system for each font (the original design contained twenty-one fonts). The first number defines type weight, the second width. The typeface offers variety in a cohesive, legible package. Its neutral tone is an asset. Univers can wear many hats and satisfy diverse projects.

O N T Y P E F A C E S Selection Considerations

Display

Subhead, Body, Caption

24 point and up

L to R

48 pt Minion

Subhead

Display, Body, Caption

14 to 24 point

L to R

24 pt Minion

Body

Display, Subhead, Caption

9 to 14 point

L to R

14 pt Minion

Caption

Display, Subhead, Body

6 to 8 point

L to R

8 pt Minion

Slight adjustments in contrast, proportion, and weight optimize typefaces used at specific point sizes. Caption and body styles designed for comfortable and extended reading perform well at small sizes. They are too dense and muddy enlarged. Subhead and display styles crafted to shine at large sizes fall short when they are reduced. Stroke quality is lost. Optical styles maintain typeface legibility and elegance at all sizes when used as planned.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Examine the design of typefaces. Look for legible, well-proportioned, and acutely crafted characters. When typeset, words and lines read fluidly. Reliable typefaces have consistent styles (posture, weight, and width) to provide for typographic variation and emphasis. Depending on the quantity and variety of text, a range of styles—from light to bold weights and condensed to extended widths—add versatility. Likewise, ligatures, swash characters, and alternate glyphs offer diversity. Certain typefaces, including Minion by Robert Slimbach, have optical styles, commonly caption, body, subhead, and display. Optical styles feature subtle adjustments in letterform contrast, proportion, and weight that enhance appearance at specific point sizes. For example, if setting type above 24 point, use the display style, which appears too thin at small sizes. Conversely, 6- to 8-point type size requires caption styles, which look too heavy at large sizes. Optical styles represent fine attention to detail. No matter the type size needed, optimal forms exist. Ample typefaces offer typographic opportunities.

In this student project, changes in point size and weight create variation and emphasis. The contrast is simple and effective with just one typeface— Helvetica. Confident type settings convey the Knoll brand.

kristín agnarsdóttir

O N T Y P E FAC E S

In Combination

Examine letterform anatomy.

Sentinel and Whitney, Hoefler & Frere-Jones

Compare and contrast features. Epic, Neil Summerour Alright Sans, Jackson Cavanaugh

Seek the typefaces of one designer, as they often share approach and style. Glypha and Univers, Adrian Frutiger Science does not apply when it comes to pairing typefaces. Examine letterform anatomy. Compare and contrast features. Seek the typefaces of one designer—they often have a similar approach and style. Let intuition lead decision-making. What looks optically fit is often good. Strive for distinction that suits the content.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Starting out, begin with one quality typeface. A dependable choice normally meets all needs. For instance, proven effective over time, Helvetica by Max Miedinger is ever-present. Sometimes one typeface is not enough. Creating broader typeface palettes has benefits. Multiple faces differentiate types of text. They extend typesetting possibilities and foster rich typographic color and texture. Relationships between typefaces, typically up to two or three, deepen personality. In all cases, thoughtful deliberation leads the way. Pairing one serif and sans serif typeface works in most situations. Contrast is key. Check comparative and contrasting features, such as letterform proportion, x-height, stroke quality, and stress. Typefaces with similar x-heights and counters mix nicely. Specific letterforms also provide cues. Look for consistent anatomy traits. For example, typefaces with double story characters (lowercase a and g) might pair better than one face with them, the other without. Examine all typeface offerings. If text calls for small caps and multiple numeral sets, choose faces that include them. Avoid redundancy. Typefaces with marked likeness, such as those from the same category, are poorly matched partners. In use, assign each typeface specific roles. For instance, body text may look best set in a highly legible serif face designed for reading. A complementary sans serif serves brief captions or subheads well. Text in limited quantity, such as title pages or short headings, works nicely in striking display faces. When combining typefaces, carefully review the size relationships between letterforms. Match them optically, not by point size. At the same size, one typeface can look larger or smaller than another when set side by side. Subtle adjustments create balanced combinations. Be decisive. Use typeface combinations to enrich and clarify text.

Too similar angled crossbars on the lowercase e Centaur and Jenson

Too similar hairline, unbracketed serifs Bodoni and Walbaum

Too similar stroke contrast and counters Frutiger and Myriad Typefaces of the same category make unhappy companions. When mixing typefaces, distinction between them is vital. Contrast loses to similarity. Competing identities do not benefit the text they aim to distinguish. The One Love Organics packaging typography is fresh and elegant. Serif Filosofia and san serif Gotham are the dominant typefaces. The designer’s lettering (with a color splash) marks the products’ names. Handwriting combines with the type and adds a human touch.

one love organics

O N T Y P E F A C E S In Combination

Bodoni and Univers unite in identity materials and menus for the New York City restaurant and co*cktail bar Compose. Bodoni directs the eye to names, menu

items, and prices. Its poised setting emphasizes the typeface attributes of high stroke contrast and majestic majuscules. Descriptive text set in Univers supports the refined serif.

jesse reed 78

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The book series Temas de Psicanálise

Ten typefaces appear on the C D cover

(Themes of Psychoanalysis) uses Century

Moonmonster (one in a series called

Schoolbook and Scala Sans on the spines.

The Book of a Number of Hours). The

The typefaces distinguish titles from

mix, which includes Giza, Zapata, and

authors with the support of type size

Ironmonger, is striking. Typographic

and case changes.

expertise is required to manage this combination and quantity of faces. The

fba.

back cover quietly contrasts the front with one typeface, Historical Fell.

charles gibbons O N T Y P E F A C E S In Combination

D I S P L AY

BIG

TEXT

MICRO

SANS

LIGHT

BOOK

MEDIUM

SEMIBOLD

BOLD

BLACK

◀ Freight

joshua darden If seeking multiple typefaces, superfamilies are excellent choices. Designed as full-bodied typographic systems, they offer consistency across serif, semi serif, sans serif, semi sans, and slab serif typefaces. Whether using two, three, or four faces, superfamilies harmonize. One size fits all.

Sans Serif Sans Serif Italic Sans Serif Bold Sans Serif Bold Italic Mix Mix Italic Mix Bold Mix Bold Italic Serif Serif Italic Serif Bold Serif Bold Italic Nexus

martin majoor Sans Serif Sans Serif Italic Sans Serif Bold Sans Serif Extra Bold Semi Sans Light Semi Sans Light Italic Semi Sans Semi Sans Italic Semi Sans Bold Semi Sans Extra Bold Semi Serif Semi Serif Bold Sans Serif Light Sans Serif Light Italic Serif Serif Italic Serif Bold

Superfamilies simplify the process of combining typefaces. They may include serif, semi serif, sans serif, semi sans, and slab serif faces. Extensive weights and widths, as well as optical styles, are common. Unified by concept and form, superfamilies add unique flavor to typographic works, all connected by family ties. For instance, type designer Martin Majoor’s Nexus (“connection” in Latin) contains serif, sans serif, and slab serif typefaces. He describes it as “three typefaces, one form principle.” 3 The allied and versatile threesome stems from one design concept driving its development. (A monospaced typewriter face adds character to the core trio.) A second example is Rotis by Otl Aicher, which contains serif, semi serif, sans, and semi sans faces. Used interchangeably, the typefaces transition effortlessly from one to the next. Superfamilies are comprehensive systems fit for wide-ranging, particularly complex, typographic projects. An abundance of typefaces exists. Although a handful can be enough to last a lifetime, explore and test faces of all sorts. Create specimens with a range of settings suited to specific texts and mediums. No matter the situation, always review typefaces in context. For instance, print samples. What looks great on screen might not translate on paper. Review typefaces in multiple browsers and screen resolutions, as well as digital devices. Mock up three-dimensional environments or packages. Know what type looks like in specific mediums. Tailor aptly. Good typefaces fittingly selected—and expressed with skilled treatment— yield beautiful results.

3 “F F Nexus,” FontFont Focus,

F S I FontShop International, 2007.

Rotis

otl aicher O N T Y P E F A C E S In Combination

TYPESETTING FACTORS 86 Space

& Spacing92 Alignments & Paragraphs104 Hierarchy114 Aesthetic Tailoring

“T Y P O G R A P H I C S T Y L E ,

in this large and intelligent sense of the word, does not mean any particular style— my style or your style, or neoclassical or baroque style—but the power to move freely through the whole domain of typography, and to function at every step in a way that is graceful and vital instead of banal. It means typography that can walk familiar ground without sliding into platitudes, typography that responds to new conditions with innovative solutions, and typography that does not vex the reader with its own originality in a self-conscious search for praise.”

from The Elements of Typographic Style

robert bringhurst

Intelligent treatments and attention to detail are emphases of typographic craft. Transforming text with type that articulates it well rests with designers. Typesetting principals lead the way. Learned methods of typographic handling become second nature with repetition. Proceed with care. Principles and access to typographic tools and software do not always render effective results. Set type convincingly through decisive use—avoid relying solely on principles. Adaptable thinking is essential. Applying principles well is equal to reworking or discarding them for best results. Setting type also relies heavily on optical, not mechanical, factors (or default settings). What looks correct visually most often stands— a challenging concept to convey, especially to beginners. Typographic training involves learning to see with keen eyes. Observing type critically, notably flaws that inhibit function, offers valued insight to set it well. Detect problems (unseen by most) and fix them. Ensure nothing comes between the words and the readers. Skilled typesetting involves learned principles and practice plus thoughtful observation and treatment.

Author name and book title typeset in TheSans (from the superfamily Thesis) on the cover of the book, Handle. Die Opern, share size and weight. Color and position shifts distinguish them. The photograph inspires the color choices, which ties type and image together.

take off—media services Serif Mercury and sans serif Knockout combine on the International Drawing Annual cover. Three levels of text— organization name, tagline, and book title— share uppercase settings and justified alignments. Changes in type size, width, and tracking provide variation.

august bureau T Y P E S E T T I N G FAC TO R S

T Y P E S E T T I N G FAC TO R S

Space & Spacing

SELECTED READINGS Explorations in Typography: Mastering the Art of Fine Typesetting Carolina de Bartolo with Erik Spiekermann Typography: Macro + Microaesthetics Willi Kunz

T Y P O G R A P H I C C O LO R Typographic color refers to overall type lightness and darkness based on value, not on hue. Light and dark values influence type appearance and hierarchy. Type lacking color is dull and flat; strong color enlivens works with variation and emphasis. Text quantity, typeface, and space in and around letterforms combined with well-articulated factors such as type size, style, and spacing shape typographic color. Dark elements make strong imprints; light elements connote openness. Their interaction nurtures spatial depth, rhythm, and texture—all highly desirable typesetting attributes.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

In Typography: A Manual of Design, designer and typographer Emil Ruder writes: “The oriental philosophers hold that the essence of created form depends on empty space. Without its hollow interior a jug is merely a lump of clay, and it is only the empty space inside that makes it into a vessel.” Typesetting happens in accord with the space in and around it. Space is as much a physical presence as typographic marks. Their collective relationship enlivens works. Space can change the look and feel of type, noticeably improving or weakening it. The act of spacing adjusts and refines the distances between characters, as well as the overall appearance of words, lines, and paragraphs. It includes kerning, tracking, and leading (line spacing). The terms normal, loose, tight, and negative describe spacing. Normal typically means an even, gray field of text. It lacks light and dark values, called typographic color (not hue), which vary and emphasize. For instance, tight spacing creates a blacker impression than loosely spaced type. Readability declines as spacing decreases or increases beyond average ranges: type looks awkwardly squeezed or scattered. Key spacing goals are balance and consistency. The eye guides because spacing type relies on optical sensitivity. What works well once might not work again; always space with a delicate touch, case by case.

In this student project, text is ordered using typographic color, position, and variation of line spacing and type styles. Open leading in the first paragraph gives notice distinct from others. It is light in typographic color. Quotes in body text achieve strong contrast through weight and width changes from Univers 55 Regular to 67 Condensed Bold. The method allows the text to be easily scanned. Footnotes are consistently positioned below the body text with captions on verso pages. Repeated settings and positions of key elements aid typographic hierarchy and navigation.

akshata wadekar

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Space & Spacing

KERNING AND TRACKING

The regional charter publication, Het Streekpact Voor de Westhoek (The Regional Pact in Flanders Fields), offers an example of apt tracking applied to uppercase settings (in the typeface Trajan), which rely on open spacing for best recognition.

design sense

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Kerning adjusts slight spaces between characters and corrects ill-fitting pairs that distract because of collisions or gaps. Certain combinations appear too close to or far from each other when typeset by default. Such pairs are common with letterforms that combine with T, V, W, and Y—for example Ty, Va, Wi, and Ye. Numerals, notably 1, often need kerning to bring others closer to or farther from them. Slivers of space around punctuation like em dashes (—) and backslashes (/ ) set well with attentive tunings. A well-designed typeface has considered kerning pairs, which ease typesetting because quality spacing is inherent. Still, regardless of the typeface strength, manual adjustments can be required. Body (9 to 14 point) and caption (6 to 8 point) styles typically need less notice than display styles (24 point and up) because space between characters grows at large type sizes. Irregularities are more evident. Kerning fixes awkward appearances. Tracking affects the overall spacing of words, lines, and paragraphs. Normal tracking refers to standard spacing set by default without adjustments. Type designers preset it in typefaces. When used decisively, tracking improves type appearance. For instance, uppercase settings (full and small caps) rely on open tracking for identification. Their lack of ascenders and descenders slows readability. Added space around such characters improves recognition. The same applies to sequences of lining figures (numerals the same height as uppercase letterforms), such as phone numbers and zip codes. Alternatively, lowercase settings typically need less tracking because ascenders and descenders improve identification. Condensed typefaces with narrow proportions and counters in upper and lowercase may benefit from slightly open tracking. Avoid tracking paragraphs or continuous text. When spaced too loosely, tightly, or negatively, paragraphs no longer read fluidly.

Kerning Attentive typesetting will eliminate unwanted collisions or gaps that distract. Kerning adjusts the slivers of space between characters. Such fixes are common with letterforms next to T, V, W, and Y. Delicate shifts closer to or farther from one another remedy awkward character combinations. Numerals, especially those paired with 1, often require care, as do punctuation marks, including dashes, parentheses, and backslashes. Character space increases at large type sizes and makes errors more

Typography Irregular Spacing

UPPERCASE Before Tracking

apparent. Kerning finesses type for best presentation. Tracking Tracking affects overall spacing

Typography

UPPERCASE

of words, lines, and paragraphs to enhance readability. Uppercase settings (full and small caps) and

Adjusted Spacing

After Tracking

lining numeral sequences rely on open tracking for recognition.

1950–2012

lowercase

Lowercase settings typically need little to no tracking because of their variation in shape. Condensed

Irregular Spacing

Normal Spacing

typefaces with narrow proportions and counters in upper and lower-

1950–2012

l o w e r c a s e

case can often benefit from slight tracking. Avoid tracking paragraphs or continuous text. Words, lines,

Adjusted Spacing

Too Loose Spacing

and paragraphs loosely, tightly, or negatively tracked look spotty

lowercase

and no longer read as intended.

Too Tight Spacing

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Space & Spacing

LEADING

“No matter how admirably we plan our work or how fine in design are the types we select, its appearance when printed depends on good composition—the combination of type into words, the arrangement of words into lines, and the assemblage of lines to make pages.” Positive Leading 9/24

Leading is the vertical distance from one baseline to the next measured in points. Leading options are positive, negative, and solid. Positive leading is greater than the point size; negative leading is less. Solid leading equals point size. Positive leading is apt for most type settings. Negative leading can work for display styles (24 point and up) but not body styles (9 to 14 point). Leading depth varies and is influenced by type size, x-height, and line length. Start with leading that is at least larger than word spaces. Examine ascent (the maximum letterform height from the baseline beyond the cap line) and descent (the maximum letterform distance below the baseline). Typefaces with tall ascenders and long descenders require more line spacing to avoid touching. Long versus short lines also need open leading because the eye travels farther from one line to another. Too much paragraph leading creates loose interline space. It gives the appearance of single lines, not sequential thoughts. Tight leading shapes compact text blocks, which can be difficult to navigate because of the limited space between lines. Viewers see too much at once. Leading can also overlap, which weaves together lines of type. One text fits into the line space of another. Overlapping leading offers visual interest, as well as typographic texture, via merged yet contrasting text.

“No matter how admirably we plan our work

Typographers on Type: or how fine in design are the types we select,

An Illustrated Anthology from its appearance when printed depends on good

William Morris to the Present Day composition—the combination of type into

Ruari McLean, ed. words, the arrangement of words into lines,

W. W. Norton and the assemblage of lines to make pages.”

Leading is the vertical distance from one baseline to the next measured in points. It is positive, negative, or solid. Positive leading is greater than the type size, solid leading equal to it. Negative leading is less than the type size such as 9-point type size

Overlapping Leading 9/24

with 6-point leading. Overlapping leading is an alternate line spacing method that nests contrasting text types.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Overlapping leading is an alternate line

The exhibition catalog and invitation

spacing method that intermixes different

details for the Vakalo School of Art and

text. One text fits into the line space of

Design (Athens, Greece) illustrate solid

another. It nests without distraction and

leading, in which the leading equals type

adds typographic texture. Combined

size. Baselines of uppercase letterforms

typefaces, Deck and Matrix, as well as

in the typeface Helvetica stack on cap

type size, distinguish content.

lines for a bold impression.

bløk design

despina aeraki giota kokkosi

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Space & Spacing

T Y P E S E T T I N G FAC TO R S

Alignments & Paragraphs

Typographic alignment refers to type configurations. Alignments are flush-left/ragged right (FL , FL / RR); flush-right /ragged left (FR , FR / RL); centered (C); and justified ( J ). Flush-left settings are common and offer reading ease because the starting points of lines and paragraphs are fixed. They nurture left to right reading with comfort. Flush-right alignments are fit for words or lines. They contrast well with flush-left text, when juxtaposed along alignment edges. A ragged left edge creates irregular starting points per line, which can make reading paragraphs difficult. Centered alignments connote formality and classic typography. Useful in limited settings with minimal text, such as book title pages, centering rarely applies to continuous text (running paragraphs). Justified settings create clean lines and strong left and right alignment edges. Justified paragraphs pose challenges when variable word spaces, which flex in width based on type size and line-length relationships, cause noticeable flaws such as rivers (unsightly gaps or holes that appear in justified settings).

A call-to-action poster promotes the benefits of industrial hemp. A flush-left headline in D I N commands notice. Body text set in Newzald adopts the same alignment. The paragraph features a subtle rag with light in-and-out movement along the ragged right edge. Graphic carriers emphasize select text.

jesse reed

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Paragraphs are the largest text bodies in typographic design. Optimal settings seek balance among type size, line length, and leading. Type size is neither too small nor big. Line length is neither too narrow nor wide. Leading is neither too tight nor open. Forty-five to seventy-five characters per line is an ideal range for continuous text. A line length that is too wide makes it difficult to travel back across the paragraph to the next line and is tiring to read. Small type sizes are often ill-suited to long lines; there are too many words per line. If the line length is too short, the transition to the next line happens too quickly, and disjointed reading arises. Large type sizes fit poorly in narrow line lengths because the word count per line is limited, and excessive hyphenation, which is typically best prevented, may occur. Generous leading may break paragraphs into individual lines rather than sequential thoughts. Tight, solid, or negative leading merges lines together. Either too much is read at once or lines collide. Avoid forcing paragraphs into unsuitable arrangements. Uphold continuous text integrity and invite readers into paragraphs with considered treatments.

Line length describes the width of a text line, measured in picas. An ideal line length contains forty-five to seventy-five characters per line. If too long, it is difficult to move across and down to the next line. If too short, the transition to the next line happens too quickly. Large type sizes work best with wide line lengths, small type with narrow.

Forty-five to seventy-five characters per line is an ideal range for continuous text. A line length that is too wide makes it difficult to travel back across the paragraph to the next line and is tiring to read. Small type sizes are often ill-suited to long lines; there are too many words per line. If the line length is too short, the transition to the next line happens too quickly, and disjointed reading arises. Large type sizes fit poorly in narrow line lengths because the word count per line is limited, and excessive hyphenation, which is typically best prevented, may occur.

Above Average Line Length 89 characters per line

Optimal settings seek balance among type size, line length, and leading. Forty-five to seventy-five characters per line is an ideal range for continuous text. Average Line Length 68 characters per line

Average Line Length 45 characters per line

Below Average Line Length 31 characters per line

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

Designers engage with words, typographically expressing them with purpose and poise.

expressing them with purpose and poise.

Typography is a process, a refined craft making

language visible. Designers shape language with

type and give words life and power to speak

text fluently. Letterforms and their supporting

characters are simple shapes that do so much.

With distinct voices and personalities, type whispers

delicately and shouts loudly. Communication lies

at its core. Type is commanding and beautiful one

moment, analytic and instructive the next. It is

dramatic, whimsical, modest, and extravagant.

Typographic practice (and those dedicated to it)

gives spoken and written language vitality across

time, generations, and cultures.

Flush Right F R , F R / R L Flush-right alignments are best suited to words or lines, rather than paragraphs. Flush right contrasts

time, generations, and cultures.

Flush Left F L , F L / R R Flush left is a multipurpose alignment method, especially for paragraphs. It offers a fixed point from which words,

well with flush left text, when juxta-

lines, and paragraphs begin, which

posed along alignment edges. Flush

eases left to right reading. Fixed word

right is less fitting for paragraphs because the start of each line varies in position. The stable left edge seen in flush-left and justified alignments fosters improved reading conditions for continuous text.

Designers engage with words, typographically

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

space typically makes ragging easier to manage than justified alignments with variable word space.

Designers engage with words, typographically

Designers engage with words, typographically expressing

expressing them with purpose and poise. Typography

them with purpose and poise. Typography is a process,

is a process, a refined craft making language visible.

a refined craft making language visible. Designers shape

Designers shape language with type and give words

language with type and give words life and power to

life and power to speak text fluently. Letterforms

speak text fluently. Letterforms and their supporting

and their supporting characters are simple shapes

characters are simple shapes that do so much. With dis-

that do so much. With distinct voices and personalities,

tinct voices and personalities, type whispers delicately

type whispers delicately and shouts loudly.

and shouts loudly. Communication lies at its core. Type is

Communication lies at its core. Type is commanding

commanding and beautiful one moment, analytic and

and beautiful one moment, analytic and instructive

instructive the next. It is dramatic, whimsical, modest,

the next. It is dramatic, whimsical, modest, and

and extravagant. Typographic practice (and those dedi-

extravagant. Typographic practice (and those

cated to it) gives spoken and written language vitality

dedicated to it) gives spoken and written language

across time, generations, and cultures.

vitality across time, generations, and cultures.

Centered C

Justified J

Centered alignments fit short amounts

Justified alignment often produces harder,

of text, such as that in title pages,

geometric settings with clean flush edges.

packaging, or business cards. Centering

It has variable word spaces, which means

is rarely practical for running paragraphs.

word spaces flex in width, based on type

Left and right ragged lines do not

size, line length, and number of characters

offer alignment points for support

per line. Attention to such factors is vital

text, nor do they create relationships

to well-justified settings, which are prone

with format edges.

to rivers—disruptive gaps and holes that run through justified paragraphs.

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

Spreads from the Realm Charter School brochure display flush-left and -right alignments. Flush-right settings work well in limited cases, such as single lines, as seen here. Consistent positioning along the top and side format edges, as well as type set in Nexus Mix (from the superfamily Nexus), offer unity. Support text at spread bottoms set flush left in the typefaces Nexus Typewriter and Vitesse share information about students’ daily activities.

mine ™ 96

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

A handbill with limited text is best set in a

Centered alignments express formality

centered alignment. The piece announces

and tradition. Business cards for the

a musical event at The Monastery Manchester.

wealth management company Florin

Combined typefaces, including Trade Gothic,

Kildare aptly reflect such qualities.

Blackoak, Campanile, Freebooter Script,

Customized type settings (the logotype

JFFerrule, Stymie, and Clarendon convey

is a redrawn version of Austin with text

a sense of Victorian Age printed matter.

in Monotype Baskerville) and premiumhandcrafted papers convey confidence,

imagine–cga

heritage, and trustworthiness.

nelson associates

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

Justified body text with ample line length offers a clean edge for footnotes stemming off it in a flush-left alignment. Serif typeface Utopia in different type sizes further distinguishes text in an exhibition catalog that celebrates Portuguese literature. An uppercase treatment plus color shift introduces opening words of the first paragraph with distinction.

fba.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Dense fields of justified type in the sans serif Knockout grab attention on the Grip Limited website. Type size varies per line to best fit measures and maintain consistent tracking. Slab serif Archer delicately complements Knockout in limited type settings such as “Contact Us,” “About Us,” and “Jobs.” Multiple navigation options support collapsible columns and ensure the design is user friendly.

grip limited

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

PA R A G R A P H I N D I C AT O R S

A paragraph indicator is a visual cue that signals the beginning of a new thought. It is a silent note that provides a fleeting pause and smooth transition from one paragraph to another. Reading continues fluidly and does not halt. Multiple methods exist to signal new paragraphs. Common paragraph indicators are indents and half or full line returns. A traditional indent is equivalent to one em space. Exaggerated indents range up to half the measure of the line length. Outdents are expressive indicators. First lines of paragraphs shift outside the body text, rather than into it. Length varies, depending on the desired effect. Graphic elements such as circles or squares, and symbols such as fleurons ( ), fists ( ), or pilcrows (paragraph sign)( ) are other paragraph indicators. Such devices can be lighter in color or value than body text. Be inventive, but be careful not to over-indicate paragraphs—it can inhibit reading and result in the indicator being more prominent than the text. Opening paragraphs, such as chapter or section introductions, are starting points, not continuations. Thus, paragraph indicators that signal a change from the preceding paragraphs are not needed. First lines of beginning paragraphs occasionally merit special attention, such as typographic variation. Investigate changes in type size, style, or case. Try a baseline shift, which is a type position change above or below the baseline. A companion typeface is also effective. Drop caps add ornate flair when fit to content. Opening lines and paragraphs are invitations to readers. Create a unique start when appropriate. Establish a fitting tone for paragraphs that follow.

Indent A traditional approach is an indent equivalent to one em space. Indents can also match the leading. Be sure that they are not too slight, which can look like an extra space or unplanned misstep. An indent alternative equals half the paragraph measure or line length. Such extension might be excessive for large amounts of continuous text, but in limited use, the exaggerated effect is unexpected and dramatic. Full and Half Line Returns Full and half line returns signal breaks between paragraphs. A full line return maintains baseline alignment (see chapter 5), if in place. Full returns can benefit paragraphs with leading of little depth. The space between paragraphs is apparent; the pause is clear. Full returns applied to openly leaded paragraphs can distract. Too great a distance between paragraphs breaks them apart; the space is too large and leaves paragraphs in chunks. Sequential thought ceases. A half line return is a reasonable substitute. It is any measure greater than the leading but less than a full return. Tailor appropriately.

100

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

A traditional approach is an indent equivalent to one em space. Indents can also match the leading. Be sure that they are not too slight, which can look like an extra space or unplanned misstep.

Outdent An outdent refers to first lines that shift outside the paragraph body. Ledge-like in appearance, outdent lengths vary from a half to a full

An indent alternative equals half the paragraph measure or line length. Such extension might be excessive for large amounts of continuous text, but in limited use, the exaggerated effect is unexpected and dramatic.

paragraph width or more. Outdents work well when dramatic effect is desired. They sometimes have a second emphasis factor, such as a style or case change, that contrasts with the body text.

Full and half line returns signal breaks between paragraphs. A full line return maintains baseline alignment, if in place.

Graphic Elements and Symbols Graphic elements, such as circles, squares, and triangles, offer expres-

24 P O I N T

Full returns can benefit paragraphs with leading of little depth. The space between paragraphs is apparent; the pause is clear. Full returns applied to openly leaded paragraphs can distract. Too great a distance between paragraphs breaks them apart; the space is too large and leaves paragraphs in chunks. Sequential thought ceases.

sive ways to indicate paragraphs. Integrated throughout body text, they shape what looks like one paragraph. These devices often appear lighter in color or value than the body text. Embellished symbols, including fleurons ( ) or fists ( ), add decorative character. Consider the pilcrow ( ) for literal representation. Graphic elements and symbols require discretion to

18 P O I N T

A half line return is a reasonable substitute. It is any measure greater than the leading but less than a full return. Tailor appropriately. 12-point Leading

avoid being stronger than the paragraphs they signal.

O U T D E N T S refer to first lines that shift outside the paragraph body. Ledge-like in appearance, outdent lengths vary from a half to a full paragraph width or more. Outdents work well when dramatic effect is desired. They sometimes have a second emphasis factor, such as a style or case change, that contrasts with the body text.

Graphic elements, such as circles, squares, and triangles, offer expressive ways to indicate paragraphs. ▶ Integrated throughout body text, they shape what looks like one paragraph. These devices often appear lighter in color or value than the body text. Embellished symbols, including fleurons or fists, add decorative character. Consider the pilcrow for literal representation. ◉ Graphic elements and symbols require discretion to avoid being stronger than the paragraphs they signal.

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

101

PA R AG R A P H F I N E S S E

Ragging and hyphenation are methods that finesse paragraphs. Ragging is dedicated to fine-tuning paragraph edges with manual line breaks. It remedies line ends with awkward angles, curves, holes, and shapes that appear when using default settings. Rags may be active, with ample in-and-out movement from line to line, or understated, with subtle shifts. No absolute method exists. Achieve a smooth ebb and flow, and adjust anything that distracts from reading. Whether loose or tight, rag consistently. Prevent empty spaces, truncated words, short lines, or ledges that extend into or beyond the average line length. Discreet adjustments in column width or type size can assist ragging. Use such techniques in limited cases when manual line returns, hyphenation, or occasional copy edits do not solve the issues. Avoid ragging by tracking or manipulating word space. It often leads to inconsistent spacing. Save ragging until the end of typesetting with final text placed.

102

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Typesetting without hyphenation is ideal but not realistic, especially for continuous text (running paragraphs). Hyphenation splits words across lines and improves typographic appearance. With it come many guidelines. Watch consecutive hyphenations at line ends—strive for no more than two in a row. Do not hyphenate proper names and nouns. The first and last full paragraph lines are hyphen free. Break words into grammatically correct syllables. Avoid hyphenating words with fewer than five letterforms. Split words down the middle in best cases. Too little left behind or brought ahead is awkward, for example, the –ed in “hyphenated.” A rule of thumb is two letterforms behind, three ahead. Rivers, orphans, and widows are further factors to control when refining paragraphs. Rivers are gaps or disruptive holes that run down and across justified alignments. Widows are one, two, or three short words on the last paragraph line. They do not fill enough line length; their diminutive stature draws attention. Review and alter previous lines with effort to add heft to the last line. It need not meet average line ends; half the measure is fitting. Orphans arise in multiple-page projects. They are first paragraph lines ending pages or last paragraph lines beginning new ones.

Hyphenation on line 1 Three hyphens in a row, lines 1, 2, and 3 Large hole, line 4 Angle, lines 4, 5, and 6

Ledge on line 9

Ragging refines paragraph edges. Awkward angles, curves, holes, and shapes that appear through default settings need tending. Rags may be active, with liberal in-and-out movement, or unassuming, with subtle variation. Hyphenation supports ragging by decisively splitting words across lines. Unwanted rivers, orphans, and widows also need spe-

Before

cial attention. Rivers are unsightly

settings. Widows are one, two, or

gaps or holes that appear in justified three short words on the last paragraph line. Orphans isolate single paragraph lines between pages.

After

Rivers and irregular spacing

Rivers,

orphans,

and

widows

are

further

factors

control when refining paragraphs. Rivers are gaps or disrupToo open spacing between words,

tive holes that run down and across justified align-

lines 1, 3, 6, and 7

ments. Widows are one, two, or three short words on the last paragraph line. They do not fill enough line length; their diminutive

Too tight spacing between words,

stature

line 5

lines

draws with

attention. effort

Review add

and heft

alter to

previous the

last

line. Widow on line 8 Before Rivers, orphans, and widows are further factors to control when refining paragraphs. Rivers are gaps or disruptive holes that run down and across justified alignments. Widows are one, two, or three short words on the last paragraph line. They do not fill enough line length; their diminutive stature draws attention. Review and alter previous lines with effort to add heft to the last line. After

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Alignments & Paragraphs

103

T Y P E S E T T I N G FAC TO R S

Hierarchy

Business cards contain the Acht Frankfurt identity with the name set in sans serif Conduit. A custom typeface distinguishes the brand descriptions “digital solutions” and “visual catering.” Case contrast separates the company and brand. A shared baseline with matching cap and ascender heights maintain their unity.

falko ohlmer

104

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Hierarchy orders text by complementing and contrasting relationships. Without it, typographic design lacks focus and visual interest. Hierarchy is inherent to typesetting. Start with text when defining hierarchy. Map it by noting the quantity and variety. Rank text by importance. This defines what viewers see first, second, third, and so on. A systematic scheme unfolds that lets designers set type with purpose. The visualization of ranked text expresses hierarchy. Some elements lead; others support. Type combines cohesively and consistently to facilitate navigation. Engage viewers and direct them where to go and in what order. Designers conduct hierarchy with typographic, spatial, and graphic factors, which offer limitless combinations to achieve variation and emphasis. Typographic factors include type size changes, style contrasts (posture, weight, and width), typeface combinations, case distinctions, and baseline shifts. For instance, a type size adjustment might be enough to differentiate basic text with few variables. Alternatively, a project might consist of three type sizes and two weights in one typeface. Headings and body text share point size and vary through a weight change or uppercase setting. Combined serif and sans serif typefaces offer more possibilities. Assign each face a function. Use their attributes to best advantage. Amplify and minimize type with appropriateness. Too few typographic factors do not distinguish; too many are redundant and complicated. Take time to build a typographic system—a well-thought-out palette of typefaces and proportional type sizes and measures, whose components interact and integrate. Systems tailored to specific text establish typesetting guidelines. When applied, repeated treatments are visual guideposts that direct viewers through projects.

Spatial and graphic factors support type for hierarchical benefit. Spatial factors include spacing (tracking, kerning, and leading), orientation shifts (horizontal, vertical, and diagonal), and position changes. For instance, leading affects the depth and typographic color of lines and paragraphs. Tight leading often projects dark impressions; open leading is optically lighter. Consider orientation shifts to juxtapose type. Rotate elements and contrast horizontal and vertical directions. Examine type positioned in close proximity versus distant. Contrast alignments, such as flush-left and -right alignments, that meet along an axis. Graphic factors including line, shape, and color also support type and aid hierarchy. Carriers or devices such as circles or squares can enclose and accentuate typographic elements. Lines direct the eye to specific type settings. Color distinguishes elements. Many options exist. Experiment and discover distinctive typesetting techniques in concert with spatial and graphic factors for best results.

The cover of a post-9/11 political study,

B A S I C VA R I AT I O N A N D E M P H A S I S FA C TO R S

Transatlantic Relations in the Times of Crisis, displays weight and color emphases

Typographic

to attain hierarchy. Sans serif Etica set

Point Size

flush left is neutral and adopts a sober

Style (Posture, Weight, Width)

personality suited to the subject matter.

Typeface Combinations

Strong weight contrast gives notice.

Case Distinctions Baseline Shifts

david březina Spatial Spacing (Kerning, Tracking, Leading) Orientation Position Graphic Line Shape Color

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Hierarchy

105

LEVEL 1 Typeface Thesis TheSans Type Size 9 point

LEVEL 2 Typeface Thesis TheSans Type Sizes Any combination of 8, 12, 16, 24, 48, 72, and 144 points

LEVEL 3 Typefaces

A Thesis TheSans and Century Schoolbook B Thesis TheSans and Clarendon Type Sizes Any

Many methods exist to create hierarchy and variation. Here, a series of student-

designed studies exhibits basic typographic, spatial, and graphic factors. Project objectives include hierarchical achievement, as well as typesetting and compositional variation. Typefaces and type sizes were assigned for each level.

tyler brooks 106

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Weight change and orientation contrast are dominant typographic and compositional techniques. Squares support type and lead the eye to key text: title, date, location, and description. The study also features consistent lowercase settings. Slight tracking of the title “Julian Stanczak” offers subtle variation without sacrificing readability.

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Hierarchy

107

Dramatic type size contrast gives attention to “Stanczak.” The stem of the k is a leading edge for support text (location, sponsors, and contact information), which sits at flushleft and -right alignments. Bold and italic styles add typographic color in justified paragraphs. A slightly exaggerated indent signals the second paragraph. 108

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

A combination of Century Schoolbook and Thesis TheSans fosters hearty typographic texture through size, posture, weight, and case shifts. The typefaces mix effectively in the paragraph. Such variation rich with typographic color calls attention to sentences.

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Hierarchy

109

110

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The annual report cover for

K U O W, the N P R affiliate radio station in Seattle, features the typeface Bau. A durable uppercase setting with vertical orientation echoes the image on which it rises up like a radio tower.

cheng design A baseline shift is a change in type position above or below the baseline. “Reisz” in the Allison Reisz Photography logotype set in the typeface Chalet (Paris 1970 and 1980) shifts above the baseline. The change is subtle and offers distinction.

luxecetera Multiple typefaces shape the Bun Mee logotype, which features a customized version of Refrigerator Deluxe with Banque Gothique. A third typeface, Numbers Depot, appears in “2010.” Relationships among typefaces contrast with personality. Vintage, handpainted letterforms inspired the typeface selections.

mine ™

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Hierarchy

111

The cover of Beer: A Genuine Collection of Cans contains three levels of hierarchy: title, subtitle, and author names. Contrasting point sizes in the serif typeface Freight creates hierarchy. An interior spread shows a similar three-level structure with a heading, body text, and caption. Simple size shifts with position changes achieve order.

dan becker lance wilson

112

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Hierarchy

113

T Y P E S E T T I N G FAC TO R S

Aesthetic Tailoring

Adept typesetting involves studied principles and practice plus keen observation and treatment. Aesthetic tailoring is the final typesetting phase when designing with type for communication. Called microtypography, it ensures refined type settings. Projects are free of distractions and missteps that inhibit reading and message delivery. All mediums and formats require an enhanced sensitivity to typographic detail. Presented here are fundamental etiquette factors that offer simple methods to tailor type.

weight

fake weight

width

fake width fake width

type

TYPE

type

fake italic fake italic

TYPE

italic

t y p e

Maintain proper typeface proportions. Use only available styles—posture, weight, and width— of chosen typefaces, which have been carefully considered and proportioned by type designers. Select italic or oblique fonts from within the typeface. Avoid altering roman styles by slanting, thus creating objectionable “fake italics.” Adding strokes to vary type weight is poor practice. It is inadvisable to skew or stretch letterforms to make narrow or wide alternatives. Proper proportions and typeface integrity are diminished.

T Y P E

combined typefaces 54-point Epic and Alright Sans

18-point Epic and 16.5-point Alright Sans

{italic } [italic ] (italic) 114

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Maintain baseline relationships. Baselines are imaginary lines on which letterforms, words, lines, and paragraphs sit. Letterforms maintain shared baselines, which support left to right reading patterns. Stacking type breaks the natural reading flow. Shift orientation, if vertical presence is desired. Type reads up or down with intact baseline relationships. Match combined typefaces optically when set side by side. When setting multiple typefaces, carefully review the size relationships between them. Match them optically, not by point size. At the same size, one typeface can look larger or smaller than another set side by side. Choose roman (or regular) brackets, curly brackets, and parentheses. Brackets, curly brackets, and parentheses remain upright (roman or regular) even if the text inside them is italic.

Insert ligatures and avoid character collisions. A ligature is the union of two or more characters into one. Varieties include stylistic, lexical, and discretionary. Become familiar with typefaces and know ligature availability. If they exist, use them. If they do not, be attentive to character collisions and kern aptly.

SMALL CAPS

FULL CAPS

SMALL CAPS

FA K E S M A L L C A P S

SMALL CAPS

lowercase

forty-five

breaking

1900–2000

31–36

N OT

forty—five

break– ing

1900-2000

31—36

“When I’m working on a problem,

“ When I’m working on a problem,

I never think about beauty. I think

only how to solve the problem.

But when I have finished, if the

solution is not beautiful, I know

it is wrong.”

R. Buckminster Fuller

Before

R. Buckminster Fuller After

Use small caps only if offered in typefaces selected. Small caps are uniquely designed letterforms that share a similar weight and x-height with lowercase (SMALL CAPS are typically slightly taller). When elements such as acronyms and abbreviations appear in body text, SMALL CAPS replace FULL CAPITALS, which are optically too large next to lowercase . Use SMALL CAPS only if offered in a selected typeface—not all contain them. Simply reducing full caps to small-cap size makes them look too thin and narrow. “Fake small caps” are awkward and discordant. SMALL CAPS also require open tracking. Use hyphens and dashes appropriately. Hyphens (-) appear in breaking (break-ing) and compound words (forty-five, well-equipped). En dashes (–) link items such as dates (1900–2000), times (8:00–9:00), and page numbers (31–36). Extra space is unneeded before and after en dashes. Kern to avoid accidental collisions. Em dashes (—) separate thoughts. No spaces are needed before and after—though kerning can pertain. En dashes can replace em dashes when separating thoughts. In such cases, space before and after the en dash is required. Regardless of the method, use them aptly and consistently. Refine punctuation. Slight, distracting spaces form when punctuation marks such as periods, commas, and quotation marks sit along flush edges. Manual modifications that position such marks outside flush edges ensure optical alignment. Hanging punctuation applies to (noting a few) asterisks, apostrophes, commas, periods, and quotation marks. Other marks that share visual weight with characters such as question marks and exclamation points typically do not need attention.

T Y P E S E T T I N G F A C T O R S Aesthetic Tailoring

115

Use correct apostrophes, quotation marks, and primes. True apostrophes (single quotes) and quotation marks (double quotes) are curved or angled, open or closed. They are not straight up-and-down forms, which commonly appear by default in place of correct marks. Keyboards provide one key for two sets of symbols— left (open) and right (closed) apostrophes and quotation marks. Typing the assigned key makes ambidextrous, typewriter-style, straight, or dumb single and double marks. Recognize the difference between true and fake forms. Ensure accurate use and manually substitute proper forms through glyph menus. The option to turn on “smart quotes” exists in software applications, which eases the process altogether through automatic replacement. Prime marks, which are typically straight or angled, represent measures such as feet and inches, minutes and seconds, and arcseconds and arcminutes.

ī Balance bullets optically or substitute midpoints. No adjustments. ī

Bullets are common typographic devices that identify list items. Reduced 1.25 points with a slight baseline shift up (0.5 pt).

· Midpoints are smaller bullet alternatives. No adjustments.

Word space?ʳʳInsert one space between sentences. Word space?ʳInsert one space between sentences.

11 6

Balance bullets optically or substitute midpoints. Bullets are common typographic devices that identify list items. Hung outside alignments, bullets often appear too large next to type set at the same size. Thus, slight point size reduction serves them well. Baseline shifts (type position changes above or below the baseline) optically balance bullet position adjacent to text. Midpoints are smaller bullet alternatives that require no size adjustments for optical fit. Insert one word space between sentences. Only one word space between sentences is required. Double spaces add extra, unwanted white space between sentences that distract. Punctuation followed by a single word space plus the next sentence start (typically with a capital) offer enough visual cues that render useless the double space.

Refine paragraph and line edges. Ragging refines paragraph and line edges. Awkward angles, curves, holes, and shapes that appear through default settings require tending. Rags may be active, with liberal in-and-out movement, or unassuming, with subtle variation.

Before

After

Unwanted rivers, orphans, and widows also require special attention. Rivers are unsightly gaps or holes that appear in justified settings. Widows are one, two, or three short words on the last paragraph line.

Proper Words

syllables

Proper Words

syllables

into

hyphenation

N OT

Proper Words

syllables

into

hyphenation

Typography Before

Typography After

UPPERCASE

condensed

Before

After

Fix rivers, orphans, and widows. Unwanted rivers, orphans, and widows also require special attention. Rivers are unsightly gaps or holes that appear in justified settings. Widows are one, two, or three short words on the last paragraph line. Orphans isolate single paragraph lines between pages. Control hyphenation. Hyphenation splits words across lines to improve typographic appearance. Watch consecutive hyphenations at line ends— there should be no more than two in a row. Avoid hyphenating proper names and nouns. The first and last full paragraph lines are hyphen free. Break words into correct syllables. Avoid hyphenating words with less than five letterforms. Split words down the middle in best cases. Too little left behind or brought ahead is awkward. A rule of thumb is two letterforms behind, three ahead. Kern between characters. Attentive type setting monitors unwanted collisions or gaps that distract. Kerning adjusts the slivers of space between characters. Such fixes are common with letterforms next to T, V, W, and Y. Delicate shifts closer to or farther from one another remedy awkward combinations. Numerals, especially those paired with 1, require care, as do punctuation marks including dashes, parentheses, and backslashes. Character space increases at large type sizes and makes errors more apparent. Track specific settings. Tracking alters the overall spacing of words, lines, and paragraphs to enhance readability. Uppercase settings (full and small caps) and lining numeral sequences rely on open tracking for recognition. Condensed typefaces with narrow proportions and counters in upper and lowercase can benefit from slight tracking.

Avoid tracking lowercase and paragraphs (continuous text). Lowercase settings typically need minimal to n o t r a c k i n g b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s h a p e v a r i a t i o n . Wo r d s , lines, and paragraphs loosely, tightly, or negatively tracked no longer read as intended.

Avoid tracking lowercase and paragraphs (continuous text). Lowercase settings typically need minimal to no tracking because of their shape variation. Words, lines, and paragraphs loosely, tightly, or negatively tracked no longer read as intended.

Before

After 117

STRUCTURE 122 Baseline

Alignment126 Grid Systems138 Alternate Methods

120

Structure shapes typographic compositions and offers designers creative potential. Used to order, connect, and balance, structure helps designers build rational layouts. Harmony follows with clarity and aesthetic grace. Viewers engage in and navigate works without distraction. Structural systems are mathematic, mechanical, intuitive, and organic. Designers construct them differently based on function, experience, and preference. Inspiration exists in architecture, art, geometry, music, and nature. All areas offer methods worthy of in-depth discovery. For instance, research classic proportion systems such as the golden section, divine proportion, and root rectangle. Study the findings of mathematicians, artists, and designers such as Fibonacci, Leonardo da Vinci, and Le Corbusier. Explore grid systems comprised of vertical and horizontal spatial divisions. Rely on intuition and allow connections between typographic elements to assist decision-making. Regardless of the plan on which the structure derives, the goal is communication through typographic design. Use structure to achieve it.

SELECTED READINGS

Boundless options exist to divide compositional space and distribute content. Shared here are basic structures with a focus on grids and alternate methods suitable for typographic design. The objective is to provide examples that foster success on macrotypographic levels.1 Fundamental structures are adaptable and responsive skeletal supports critical to composition. They guide the layout process yet remain unnoticed in final works; their form need not be apparent to viewers. Content and context drive structural development. As in choosing typefaces and typesetting, first analyze text and understand it. Identify the users and viewing conditions. Define the medium and its parameters. Make structures that satisfy conditions and best support the content. Solid frameworks generate inviting physical or virtual canvases ready to explore. Synthesize in them typographic elements and white space. Control positions and refine alignments, and creative and clear communication will follow. Aptly built and exercised structures give viewers the subconscious sense that compositions feel right.

1 Macrotypography addresses composition or layout— the plan and organization of typographic elements.

Design Elements: Form & Space

Key considerations include spatial positioning and

Dennis M. Puhalla, Ph.D.

relationship building among elements and white space. Microtypography refers to typesetting essentials and

Geometry of Design:

details. Principal micro factors include spacing and

Studies in Proportion and Composition

aesthetic tailoring (see chapter 1).

KimberlyElam The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture Gyorgy Doczi

STRUCTURE

121

STRUCTURE

Baseline Alignment

Baselines are imaginary lines on which letterforms, words, lines, and paragraphs sit. Baseline alignment refers to a calculated system of horizontal guides at equally spaced vertical intervals that underlie typographic layouts. A baseline alignment system designates related positions for all type regardless of the range of point sizes. Baselines enable consistent horizontal alignment across compositions. Lines of type coincide; they also back up from page to page if viewed one atop another. Vertical rhythm and typographic unity are compositional goals. Baseline alignment helps achieve them. Body text leading (the vertical distance from one baseline to the next measured in points) typically regulates baseline intervals. For instance, if body text leading is 10 point, set a 10-point baseline alignment system. Leading for other elements follows in multiples of 10 (20, 30, 40, and so on). If a stricter interval is desired, an alternative is a 5-point baseline grid with multiples of 5 (10, 15, 20, and so on). Take the time to build baseline alignment systems. They aid typographic decision-making and structural development. Baseline intervals also influence margin size or grid module height. They can inform positions of elements such as illustrations or photographs that accompany type. Baseline alignment systems are reliable control factors suited for all projects. Order is evident to viewers, even if sensed intuitively.

122

The Grid System website features multiple columns and baseline alignment. Text set in Helvetica shares a common baseline interval that marks typographic position. A considered vertical grid structure with a horizontal baseline alignment system fosters order, connection, and balance.

antonio carusone S T R U C T U R E Baseline Alignment

123

A 12-point baseline alignment system underlies the International Drawing Annual. Body text in the serif face Mercury is set at 9/12 (9-point type over 12-point leading). Sans serif typefaces Gotham and Knockout in various point sizes have leading in multiples of 12 (24, 36, 48, and so on). Margins also fit the system at 72-point.

august bureau

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“T H E G R I D

does not automatically ensure an exciting solution. The designer must still exercise all the experience at his command: discretion, timing, and a sense of drama and sequence. In brief, the intelligent designer will recognize that the grid can help him achieve harmony and order, but also that it may be abandoned when and if necessary. To function successfully, the grid system, like all workable systems, must be interpreted as freely as necessary. It is this very freedom which adds richness and a note of surprise to what might otherwise be potentially lifeless.”

from A Designer’s Art

paul rand

SELECTED READINGS Grid Systems in Graphic Design Josef Müller-Brockmann Making and Breaking the Grid Tim Samara

STRUCTURE

Grid Systems

Grid systems are vertical and horizontal divisions of space that structure compositions. They offer multiple position and sizing options for typographic elements. Grids promote clarity and consistency and make designing with type efficient. They help designers organize information and users navigate layouts. Proportional relationships between typographic elements emerge naturally. Invisible sightlines create connections up, down, and across layouts. Alignment fosters harmony. In A Designer’s Art, Paul Rand wisely explains grid use: “The grid does not automatically ensure an exciting solution. The designer must still exercise all the experience at his command: discretion, timing, and a sense of drama and sequence. In brief, the intelligent designer will recognize that the grid can help him achieve harmony and order, but also that it may be abandoned when and if necessary. To function successfully, the grid system, like all workable systems, must be interpreted as freely as necessary. It is this very freedom which adds richness and a note of surprise to what might otherwise be potentially lifeless.” Designers customize grids based on content assessment and typographic settings; their breadth and quantity define them. Flexible, not restrictive, grids accommodate diverse typographic elements across mediums. Adaptable factors, not absolutes, lead their development and application. Use grids to express text best. Break them in service to it. Proficiency develops with practice.

A simple three-column grid fosters consistency in Neenah Paper’s Against the Grain website. Such grids are well suited to works with changing content, which can rest in one column or span many. Sans serif Avenir distinguishes headings, subheads are Helvetica; body text is in Times.

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B A S I C G R I D A N AT O M Y

MARGINS

F LO W L I N E

MODULES

MARGINS

COLUMNS

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

GUTTERS

Grids guide typographic layouts.

Columns

Vertical and horizontal spatial divisions

Columns are vertical guides that

Margins define the active compositional

offer multiple alignment and sizing

split space into segments. Framed by

area where typographic elements dwell.

choices. Used effectively by designers,

margins, columns divide the active area

They are a buffer between live content

grids nurture order, connection, and

and offer positioning options. Single-

and format edges. Margins also deliver

balance. Grids are developed after a

column grids are best suited for works

essential white space (or breathing room)

Margins

careful analysis of content and context.

with continuous text. Multiple-column

that frames layouts and directs the eye

They accommodate all compositional

grids serve projects with many typo-

to positive areas.

components comfortably.

graphic variables and elements, such as illustrations or photographs.

Modules

Gutters

elements and white space, which fill single

Modules are active spaces occupied by Gutters are thin channels of white

modules or cross many. Modules are square

space that separate columns and

or rectangular, with horizontal or vertical

rows. Their size typically equals body-

stress (wide versus tall). A set of modules

text leading or the baseline alignment

forms a spatial zone.

interval. Gutters prevent collisions when elements juxtapose. Flowlines Flowlines (hang lines) are limited horizontal guides that indicate where key elements rise or hang. For instance, one flowline might set the consistent starting position of body text; another might define the heading location.

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SINGLE-COLUMN GRIDS

Single-column grids are structural systems suited for continuous text. Framing the body text is the central factor. Balance relationships between type size, line length, and leading for extended reading. Symmetry offers balance, asymmetry variation.

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Single-column grids are simple structures suited for works with continuous text (running paragraphs). Examples include journals and novels. Such frameworks also serve text-rich websites, such as blogs. Single-column grids are devoted to framing a text block. Margins—left and right, top and bottom, inner and outer (for spreads)—define the active area and provide white space. Margin size varies per text and project dimensions. Wide margins typically maintain reader focus. Generous space creates an open environment minus peripheral distraction. Books and some multiple-page publications benefit from full margins that provide ample finger room to hold them. Small margins extend active layout space and host more content. They can also produce apt compositional tension because of the proximity of elements to format edges. (Small margins are typically useful for multiple column and modular grids with varied text and image.) Inner margins in publications where pages meet at a center spine demand deliberation to avoid lost content. To make single-column grids, first resolve the ideal paragraph setting, which balances type size, line length, and leading (see chapter 4). Readability and comfort level are essential. Multiples of the body-text leading (or baseline alignment interval) can shape margin size. Spatial divisions then share proportions. If included in the text, variables, such as footers and footnotes, affect margins because they typically reside in them. Margin space must accommodate such elements with the text block. Identify typographic variables and their settings before making decisions. Nurture optimal conditions for extended reading and handling in all mediums. Be flexible. Modify measures as necessary through the layout process.

A catalog spread for artist Omer Fast employs a single-column grid. Plentiful margins define the active text area and provide room to hold the piece. Justified body text contains German and English essays differentiated by sans serif Metallophile and serif De Walpergen Pica (Fell Types).

project projects

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M U LT I P L E - C O L U M N G R I D S

Multiple-column grids range from two-column structures to intricate varieties with eight, twelve, sixteen, and more spatial divisions. They are fit for projects across mediums with diverse text and factors, such as images, charts, and tables. Creating multiple-column grids follows simple steps that adapt per project and designer preference. The first step is choosing layout dimensions that best support the content. They are neither too small, making for tight quarters; nor too big, engulfing elements in space. Using standard sizes is a good starting point. They are established dimensions that accommodate content with economic efficiency. For example, a now common website width of 960 pixels is divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, and so on. This flexibility offers many grid options. Confirm current dimensions for mobile devices or tablets, because digital formats advance quickly. The North American and International Standard Organization (ISO) provides standard paper sizes for print works. With the dimensions set, define the margins. They frame the usable composition space and provide buffers between content and format edges. They also offer essential white space (or breathing room) that activates layouts and directs the eye to content. The allocation and proportion of white space is equal in compositional value to type. It is a considered factor in the layout process. Margin size varies with every project. Ample margins provide open canvases that surround content liberally. Small margins offer more usable space, which is ideal for complex projects. Close connections between elements and format edges add tension that benefits some works. Review existing designs for inspiration. Acquire a sense of what works in varied formats and mediums.

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Columns are regions dedicated to positioning type and other elements. They are created by dividing the area inside the margins into equally distributed vertical regions. Quantity and width varies to suit content and type settings. Too many columns can stifle decisiveness; limited numbers restrict invention. More columns typically offer flexibility through multiple alignment points. Using a primary element as a guide is one tactic to divide space. It ensures the grid accommodates it. For example, two to three columns can provide ample width to contain the body text, with the captions fitting one column. Make spatial divisions that hold everything. Next, add intervals, called gutters, between the columns. Gutters are thin channels of white space that separate columns and prevent collisions. If text and image sit side by side, a gutter is the spatial pause where text ends and image begins. Gutters also separate paragraphs if set directly next to one another. A typical gutter measure equals the body-text leading or the baseline alignment interval. As a final gridbuilding step, consider adding horizontal flowlines (hang lines). Unlike baselines that underlie layouts top to bottom, flowlines are limited guides that reference where key elements rise or hang. One flowline might define the consistent starting position of body text; another might mark heading location. Use baselines to inform flowline location.

Two or more equally dispersed vertical spatial divisions comprise multiple-column grids. They provide many position and alignment options. Too many columns can stifle decisiveness; limited numbers restrict invention. Flexibility serves multifaceted projects.

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

The E C O book cover is spacious and inviting. It sets the tone for the interior spreads. Sans serif face D I N has large counters and thin uniform strokes. The title is large in scale, yet its openness does not conceal the photograph; it suggests a window looking out to sea. An eight-column grid is the basis of the interior spreads. Multiple columns

are flexible and support all text in D I N and Memphis, as well as photographs. Consistency arises because spatial divisions have common proportions.

bløk design

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MODULAR GRIDS

Modular grids are suitable for multifaceted projects in any medium. They have equally distributed spatial modules vertically and horizontally—a precise system of columns and rows. Modules are active spaces in which type and elements such as illustrations and photographs reside. Content can fill single modules or cross many in any direction. Combined modules form spatial zones. Depending on composition size, modules can be square or rectangular, with horizontal or vertical stress (wide versus tall). Average paragraph line length and leading, as well as key image dimensions, can regulate module proportion and stress. Be certain the modules contain the dominant elements to their best advantage. Baseline alignment intervals can also define module height. Multiple modules offer flexibility and alignment options. Too few modules limit positioning and scaling choices; too many cloud decision-making. Test the options. Find the right balance in accord with content. Modular grids, like multiple-column grids, also have intervals between modules called gutters. Gutters are buffers for juxtaposed type and other elements. Body text leading or baselines typically inform gutter size. Modular grids are easy-to-build structures that adapt across mediums through consistent module proportion, regardless of layout dimensions. This flexibility makes modular grids useful for projects with components in different media.

Color-filled rectangles make a modular grid instantly evident. Although grids are typically unseen, the structure defines the design and adds graphic interest. Custom letterforms fit into modules and spell “Pekka Loiri 30 Posters.” Two modules contain informative text in Univers Condensed.

lsdspace

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Building modular grids starts with dividing the compositional space in half vertically. Proceed horizontally. Subdivide space equally until a desired module proportion and quantity forms that best supports content. Add intervals called gutters between modules to separate them.

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STRUCTURE

Alternate Methods

Alternate methods offer compositional options beyond traditional grids. The lack of preset spatial divisions nurtures intuition and experimentation. Inspired by improvisation, axiality, and geometry, alternate methods best suit projects with limited text—letterforms, words, and lines; paragraphs or multiple-page sequential formats can pose challenges. Improvised methods use type as alignment edges and points, which form as the designer positions it in the space. Connections between elements govern decision-making. For instance, if one letterform, word, or line shifts position, others follow. Designers compose type organically. It is a responsive process. Like grids, alignment fosters harmony. Elements depend on one another to decide location and attain compositional balance. Such spontaneity aids designers who find it rigid to begin working with a grid. In the inspiring words of Josef Albers: “To experiment is at first more valuable than to produce; free play in the beginning develops courage.” 2

A right-facing folio from the GreenLight Fund

Bauhaus 1919–1928.

structure formed by typographic bonds in

New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1938.

Akzidenz-Grotesk. Letterforms, words, and lines create alignment points and guides that define units and structure the page.

monderer design

138

2 Bayer, Herbert, Walter Gropius, and Ise Gropius, eds.

5 Year Progress Report shows an improvised

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Improvised methods inform the design of some logotypes. Connections between letterforms and words advise alignment; they rely on their structure to achieve balance. Logotypes are compact, independent units with aesthetic vigor that stand strongly. A medley of typefaces echoes celebration and diversity in a logotype that marks the centennial at the Faculty of Humanities, University of Lisbon, Portugal. The logotype functions at small and large sizes. Its rectilinear alignments fit its use on the building façade.

fba.

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139

Using a single axis, or a relationship between two axes, offers composition methods pertinent to works with limited text. A simple typographic structure develops by placing one line—an axis— in a composition. The axis is a guide. It provides immediate alignment edges and points for type. For example, start with one vertical axis. Divide a composition in half with it. A basic structure with a centered, symmetrical axis appears. Type may extend from the left and right sides of the axis. Move the axis up, down, left, or right. An asymmetrical structure emerges; type attains a decisive horizontal or vertical emphasis. Rotate the axis ninety degrees. Elements shift in orientation. They can be turned vertically or can hang from or rise above the axis. Spin the axis another thirty or forty-five degrees for a dynamic diagonal scheme. Type might sit along the diagonal axis or stem from either side of it. Adding a second axis adds complexity. Make it parallel or perpendicular to the first axis. The point where two axes meet is a focal point. Proximity to a focal point aids hierarchy. Simple structures suitable for limited text need not be complicated.

Two perpendicular axes structure the Typeface film poster. A vertical axis stems from the I of O B R A Z I

Č R K (typeface in Slovene). It defines the flush edge for type. Weight and posture variations in Univers aid typographic hierarchy.

tomato košir

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Placing in space an axis as guide makes a basic structure. It delivers alignment edges for type—in the center, with horizontal or vertical stress, or on a diagonal. Such configurations serve projects with limited variables.

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141

A central axis structures the print for The Tunnel, Foolproof Four, and Word. Ornamental typefaces Mesquite and Bordeaux create ambiance. A symmetrical layout with

limited text that expresses proper mood and apt typesetting does not need structural complexity to be successful.

patrick l crawford design

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Typographic elements stem from the left and right sides of a slightly offcenter, single axis. Spatial dimension adds depth and character. A custom designed typeface amplifies style.

mirko ilić corp.

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143

Geometric shapes such as circles, rectangles, or squares inspire a third variety of alternate structure and composition methods. With more complexity than improvised or axial plans, type can rotate concentrically around circles, extend from arcs, or wrap around edges of squares. Many possibilities exist. These atypical structures suit selective projects with text tailored specifically for them. Geometric-inspired layouts exude vibrant first impressions, but be aware of eclipsing communication goals. (Some geometric compositions intentionally and aptly defy typographic design for communication. Artistry or expression, not direct message delivery, drives their function.) Typographic expertise is required to manage such formats. Be attentive to overall composition (macrotypography) and typesetting essentials (microtypography). Seek similar quality on both levels. Avoid forcing type into geometric shapes or awkward arrangements. It sacrifices typeface integrity and can hamper readability. Smart decisions and settings, as well as heightened sensitivity, are essential.

Radial structures make dynamic impressions. Lines of type extend from and revolve around a central core. This poster visualizes the connections between Royal College of Art research students and funding agencies, as well as academic and industry partners. Sans serif Akkurat pairs with serif Didot to order information.

karin von ompteda peter crnokrak

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Everyone Ever in the World is a rotational structure in which type (Avant Garde Gothic) forms concentric circles, meaning all share a common center. It is a self-initiated poster described as “a visual representation of the number of people [who] lived versus [being] killed in wars, massacres, and genocide during the recorded history of humankind.”

the luxury of protest

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146

APPENDICES

148 Readings152 Contributors155 Image

Credits156 Index160 Acknowledgments160 About the Author

147

APPENDICES

Readings

A About Face:

Counterpunch:

Experimental Typography

Reviving the Rules of Typography

Making Type in the Sixteenth Century,

Rob Carter

David Jury

Designing Typefaces Now

RotoVision S A

Fred Smeijers Hyphen Press

Alphabet: The History, Evolution, and Design

Explorations in Typography: Mastering the Art of Fine Typesetting

D Dangerous Curves:

Carolina De Bartolo

of the Letters We Use Today

Mastering Logotype Design

with Erik Spiekermann

Allen Haley

Doyald Young

101 Editions, L LC

Watson-Guptill

Delphi Press

The Alphabetic Labyrinth:

Design Elements: Form & Space

and Arrangement of Type

The Letters in History and Imagination

Dennis M. Puhalla, Ph.D.

Geoffrey Dowding

Johanna Drucker

Rockport Publishers

Hartley and Marks

F Finer Points in the Spacing

Thames and Hudson Designing Type

Font. The SourceBook

American Wood Type: 1828–1900

Karen Cheng

Nadine Monem

Notes on the Evolution of

Yale University Press

Black Dog Publishing

Rob Roy Kelly

Designing with Type:

Fonts & Logos:

Liber Apertus Press

The Essential Guide to Typography

Font Analysis, Logotype Design,

James Craig

Typography, Type Comparison

Watson-Guptill

Doyald Young

Decorated and Large Types

Anatomy of a Typeface Alexander S. Lawson David R. Godine

Delphi Press Detail in Typography Jost Hochuli

An A–Z of Type Designers

Hyphen Press

Neil Macmillan Laurence King Publishing Ltd

The Form of the Book: Essays on the Morality of Good Design Jan Tschichold

E The Education of a Typographer

Hartley and Marks

Steven Heller, ed.

C The Chicago Manual of Style

Allworth Press The Elements of Typographic Style

from the Earliest Letterforms

The Complete Manual of Typography:

Robert Bringhurst

to the Latest Digital Fonts

A Guide to Setting Perfect Type

Hartley and Marks

Robin Dodd

James Felici Adobe Press

Hartley and Marks An Essay on Typography Eric Gill David R. Godine

148

From Gutenberg to OpenType: An Illustrated History of Type

University of Chicago Press

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

G Geometry of Design:

L Letter Forms

Letterwork:

Studies in Proportion

Stanley Morison

Creative Letterforms in Graphic Design

and Composition

Hartley and Marks

Brody Neuenschwander

Kimberly Elam Princeton Architectural Press Grid Systems in Graphic Design

Phaidon Press Letter Fountain Joep Pohlen

The Liberated Page

Taschen

Herbert Spencer

Josef Müller-Brockmann Arthur Niggli

Bedford Press Letter Perfect: The Art of Modernist Typography

Logotypes & Letterforms:

The Gutenberg Galaxy:

1896–1953

Handlettered Logotypes and

The Making of Typographic Man

David Ryan

Typographic Considerations

Marshall McLuhan

Pomegranate Communications

Doyald Young

University of Toronto Press

Design Press Letter Perfect:

H A History of Writing from

The Marvelous History of

M Making and Breaking the Grid

Hieroglyph to Multimedia

Our Alphabet from A to Z

Tim Samara

Anne-Marie Christin

David Sacks

Rockport Publishers

Flammarion

Broadway Books

How Typography Happens

Letter by Letter

Hermann Zapf

Ruari McLean

Laurent Pflughaupt

M I T Press

Oak Knoll Press

Princeton Architectural Press

An Introduction to the

Lettering and Type:

Manuale Typographicum

Manuel français de

typographie moderne

History of Printing Types

Creating Letters

Francis Thibaudeau

Geoffrey Dowding

and Designing Typefaces

Au Bureau de l’Édition

Oak Knoll Press

Bruce Willen

J Jan Tschichold:

Nolen Strals

Modern Typography:

Princeton Architectural Press

An Essay in Critical History

A Life in Typography

Robin Kinross

Ruari McLean

Letterletter

Princeton Architectural Press

Gerrit Noordzij

Hyphen Press

Hartley and Marks

Moving Type:

A Book About Fonts

Letters of Credit:

Jeff Bellantoni

Simon Garfield

A View of Type Design

Matt Woolman

Gotham Books

Walter Tracy

RotoVision S A

Designing for Time and Space

Just My Type:

David R. Godine

A P P E N D I C E S Readings

149

N The New Typography:

Stop Stealing Sheep and

Type: A Visual History of Typefaces

A Handbook for Modern Designers

Find Out How Type Works

and Graphic Styles, 1628–1900,

Jan Tschichold

Erik Spiekermann

Volume 1

University of California Press

E . M . Ginger

Cees W. De Jong

Adobe Press

Alston W. Purvis

P Paul Renner:

Jan Tholenaar

The Art of Typography

The Stroke: Theory of Writing

Christopher J. Burke

Gerrit Noordzij

Hyphen Press

Taschen Type: A Visual History of Typefaces and Graphic Styles, 1900–1938,

Pioneers of Modern Typography

T Texts on Type:

Volume 2

Herbert Spencer

Critical Writings on Typography

Cees W. De Jong

M I T Press

Steven Heller, ed.

Alston W. Purvis

Philip B. Meggs, ed.

Jan Tholenaar

The Power of Limits:

Allworth Press

Taschen Type: The Secret History of Letters

Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture

The Thames and Hudson

Gyorgy Doczi

Manual of Typography

Simon Loxley

Shambhala Publications

Ruari McLean

I . B . Tauris & Co. Ltd

Thames and Hudson Printing Types:

Type Design: Radical Innovations

An Introduction

Thinking with Type

and Experimentation

Alexander S. Lawson

Ellen Lupton

Teal Triggs

Beacon Press

Princeton Architectural Press

Harper Design

S Selected Essays on the History of

Treasury of Alphabets and Lettering

Type, Form & Function

Letter Forms in Manuscript and Print

Jan Tschichold

Jason Tselentis

Stanley Morison

W. W. Norton

Rockport Publishers

Cambridge University Press Twentieth-Century Type

A Type Primer

A Short History of the Printed Word

Lewis Blackwell

John Kane

Warren Chappell

Yale University Press

Prentice Hall

Twentieth Century Type Designers

Type Sign Symbol

Sebastian Carter

Adrian Frutiger

W. W. Norton

Verlag

Robert Bringhurst Hartley and Marks

Type, Image, Message: A Graphic Design Layout Workshop Nancy Skolos Tom Wedell Rockport Publishers

150

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Type and Image:

The Typographic Desk Reference

Typography Workbook

The Language of Graphic Design

Theodore Rosendorf

Tim Samara

Philip B. Meggs

Oak Knoll Press

Rockport Publishers

John Wiley and Sons Typographic Specimens:

U U&lc:

Type and Typography

The Great Typefaces

Influencing Design and Typography

Phil Baines

Rob Carter

John D. Berry

Andrew Halsam

Philip Meggs

Mark Batty Publisher

Watson-Guptill

John Wiley and Sons

Type and Typography:

Typographic Systems of Design

Adrian Frutiger

The Designer’s Type Book

Kimberly Elam

Verlag

Ben Rosen

Princeton Architectural Press

The Univers

Unjustified Texts:

Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Typography: A Manual of Design

Perspectives on Typography

Typeface: Classic Typography

Emil Ruder

Robin Kinross

for Contemporary Design

Arthur Niggli

Hyphen Press

James Grieshaber

Typography:

V The Visible Word:

Princeton Architectural Press

An Encyclopedic Survey of

Experimental Typography and Modern Art,

Type Design and Techniques

1909–1923

Typeforms: A History

Throughout History

Johanna Drucker

Alan Bartram

Fiedrich Friedl

University of Chicago Press

Oak Knoll Press

Nicolaus Ott

Tamye Riggs

Bernard Stein Typographers on Type:

Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers

An Illustrated Anthology from William Morris to the Present Day

W While You’re Reading Gerard Unger Mark Batty Publisher

Typography:

Ruari McLean, ed.

Formation + Transformation

Wolfgang Weingart: Typography

W. W. Norton

Willi Kunz

Wolfgang Weingart

Arthur Niggli

Lars Müller Publishers

Typographic Design: Form and Communication

Typography:

Rob Carter

Macro + Microaesthetics

Ben Day

Willi Kunz

Philip Meggs

Arthur Niggli

John Wiley and Sons Typography Referenced Allan Haley, Richard Poulin, Jason Tselentis, Gerry Leonidas, Tony Seddon, Ina Saltz, and Kathyrn Henderson Rockport Publishers

A P P E N D I C E S Readings

151

APPENDICES

Contributors

A Addis Creson

Bløk Design

Collective Approach

2515 Ninth St.

287 MacPherson Ave., Suite 201

[emailprotected]

Berkeley, C A 94710

Toronto, Ontario M 4 V 1 A 4

collectiveapproach.com

USA

Canada

[emailprotected]

Patrick L Crawford

addiscreson.com

blokdesign.com

1044 Valencia St., #1

Despina Aeraki

David Březina

USA

San Francisco, C A 94110 Giota Kokkosi

Potocká 42

[emailprotected]

47 Troias str.

Brno 623 00

patricklcrawford.com

11251 Athens

Czech Republic

Greece

[emailprotected]

davi.cz

aeraki.gr

D Design Sense Patteelstraat 24 8900 Ieper (Ypres)

Tyler Brooks

Belgium

Kristín Agnarsdóttir

612 Broderick St.

[emailprotected]

2155 Ashby Ave.

San Francisco, C A 94117

designsense.be

Berkeley, C A 94705

USA

[emailprotected]

[emailprotected] dottirdesign.com

E El Studio 5 New St., Largs, Ayrshire

C Antonio Carusone

Scotland K A 3 0 9 L L

[emailprotected]

6 Printing House Yard

Paula Chang

el-studio.co.uk

Shoreditch, London E 2 7 P R

1124 Palm Dr.

Alphabetical

[emailprotected]

Burlingame, C A 94010

Euro R S CG C & O

[emailprotected]

USA

2 Allée de Longchamp

alphabeticalstudio.com

[emailprotected]

Suresnes, 92150

quitecurious.com

France

August Bureau Karen Cheng Kristine Matthews

Av. Emidio Navarro 91

University of Washington

3000–151 Coimbra

Design Division, Box 353440

Portugal

B Dan Becker 33 Pearl St., #14

Seattle, WA 98112

[emailprotected]

San Francisco, C A 94103

USA

fba.pt

USA

[emailprotected]

design.washington.edu

Face. Vasconcelos 204– B

dan-becker.com Cheng Design

San Pedro, Nuevo León, 66250

2433 East Aloha St.

Mexico

Seattle, WA 98112

[emailprotected]

USA

designbyface.com

[emailprotected] cheng-design.com

152

F FBA.

[emailprotected] augustbureau.com

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

Foxtrot Bravo Alpha ( F B A)

Kendra Inman

The Luxury of Protest

638 Tillery

1520 Andalusia Ave., #5

2 Queensdown Rd., Unit 10

Austin, T X 78702

Venice, C A 90291

London E 5 8 N N

USA

[emailprotected]

foxtrotbravoalpha.com

oneloveorganics.com

theluxuryofprotest.com

G G2K

Inventaire

M MINE™

[emailprotected]

Av. de la Gare 8

g2k.nl

1630 Bulle

190 Putnam St. San Francisco, C A 94110

Switzerland

USA

Galison

[emailprotected]

28 West 44th St.

inventaire.ch

minesf.com

New York, N Y 10036

USA

K Tomato Košir

Mirko Ilić Corp.

galison.com

Britof 141

207 East 32nd St.

Kranj, 4000

New York, N Y 10016

Charles Gibbons

Slovenia

USA

11004 Avalon Dr.

[emailprotected]

Northborough, M A 01532

tomatokosir.com

mirkoilic.com

USA [emailprotected] gibbonstype.net

L L S D space San Andrés 36, 2º Puerta 6

Monderer Design 2067 Massachusetts Ave., Suite 21

28004 Madrid

Cambridge, M A 02140

Grip Limited

Spain

USA

179 John St., 6th Floor

[emailprotected]

Toronto, Ontario M 6 G 1 T 8

lsdspace.com

monderer.com

Canada griplimited.com

Luke Langhus

Mucca Design

407 West 3rd St.

568 Broadway, Room 504

idApostle

Monona, I A 52159

New York, N Y 10012

336 Liard St.

USA

Stittsville, Ontario

[emailprotected]

Canada

[emailprotected] mucca.com

[emailprotected]

Luxecetera

idapostle.com

3433 Lithia Pinecrest Rd., #285

N Naden/ Mesker Design Co.

Valrico, F L 33596

2105 Edina Blvd.

Imagine-cga

USA

Zion, I L 60099

The Stables, Ducie St.

luxecetera.com

USA

Manchester M 1 2 J N

[emailprotected]

namedesignco.com

[emailprotected] imagine-cga.co.uk

A P P E N D I C E S Contributors

153

Nelson Associates

Pete Rossi

Aggie Toppins

Town Hall Buildings, Castle St.

[emailprotected]

6 East Read St. #500

Farnham, Surrey G U 9 7 N D

pgerossi.co.uk

Baltimore, M D 21202

USA

UK [emailprotected]

Rule29

[emailprotected]

nelsonassociates.co.uk

501 Hamilton St.

aggietoppins.com

Niedermeier Design

USA

5943 44th Ave. S W

rule29.com

Geneva, I L 60134

Seattle, WA 98136

USA

V Matthijs van Leeuwen 746 Ridge St. Newark, N J 01704

S Sensus Design Factory

USA

[emailprotected]

Sijecanjska 9

[emailprotected]

kngraphicdesign.com

Zagreb, H R – 10000

matthijsvanleeuwen.com

Croatia

O Falko Ohlmer

[emailprotected]

Karin von Ompteda

sensusdesignfactory.com

2 Queensdown Rd., Unit 10

Germany

Sergey Shapiro

[emailprotected]

Akademika Piljugina str. 14–2–595

[emailprotected]

falko-ohlmer.com

Moscow 117393

karinvonompteda.com

Russia

[emailprotected]

quantitativetype.com

Waterloostrasse 3

London E 5 8 N N

22769 Hamburg

P Project Projects 161 Bowery, 2nd Floor

fromtheska.ru

W Akshata Wadekar

New York, N Y 10002

USA

Strom Strandell

[emailprotected]

1444 West Erie, 2 D

Cincinnati, O H 45240

projectprojects.com

Chicago, I L 60642

USA

[emailprotected]

R Jesse Reed

[emailprotected] Walk Up Press

1148 Academy Dr. Youngstown, O H 44505

take off – media services

194 Court St. #11

USA

Pestalozzistr. 19

Brooklyn, N Y 11201

[emailprotected]

34119 Kassel

USA

jessereedfromohio.com

Germany

[emailprotected]

walkuppress.com

Rui Ribeiro

takeoff-ks.de Lance Wilson

34 Lottie Rd., Selly Oak Birmingham B 2 9 6 J Z

Tore Terrasi

[emailprotected]

5416 Independence Ave.

elancewilson.com

[emailprotected]

Arlington, T X 76017

cofseeing.com

USA [emailprotected] toreterrasi.com

154

12030 Norwell Ct.

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

APPENDICES

Image Credits

A Addis Creson 63

F F B A . 14, 48, 79, 98, 139

Despina Aeraki

O Falko Ohlmer 67, 104

Face. 51

P Project Projects 131

Foxtrot Bravo Alpha ( F B A) 29

R Jesse Reed 51, 69, 78, 92

Giota Kokkosi 91 Kristín Agnarsdóttir 75

G G 2 K 22

Rui Ribeiro 56

Alphabetical 72

Galison 13

Pete Rossi 21, 49

August Bureau 85, 124, 125

Charles Gibbons 66, 79

Rule29 127

B Dan Becker 21, 112, 113 Bløk Design 37, 49, 91, 134, 135

Grip Limited 99

S Sensus Design Factory 16, 36

idApostle 51

Sergey Shapiro 13

David Březina 70, 105

Imagine-cga 97

Strom Strandell 15

Tyler Brooks 106, 107, 108, 109

Kendra Inman 77

C Antonio Carusone 123

Inventaire 18

Paula Chang 28

K Tomato Košir 140

Karen Cheng &

L L S D space 37, 136

T take off – media services 19, 67, 85 Tore Terrasi 56 Aggie Toppins 71

V Matthijs van Leeuwen 22

Kristine Matthews 17

Luke Langhus 24, 25

Cheng Design 110

Luxecetera 111

Collective Approach 27

The Luxury of Protest 145

Karin von Ompteda & Peter Crnokrak

Patrick L Crawford 26, 62, 142

M M I N E ™ 20, 96, 111

D Design Sense 88

Mirko Ilić Corp. 25, 143

E El Studio 21

Monderer Design 138

Euro R S CG C & O 21

144

W Akshata Wadekar 87 Walk Up Press 23 Lance Wilson 112, 113

Mucca Design 71

N Naden/ Mesker Design Co. 27 Nelson Associates 65, 68, 97 Niedermeier Design 64

A P P E N D I C E S Image Credits

155

APPENDICES

Index

A abrupt serifs 43

B Balius, Andreu 59

C Caecilia 55, 59

Addis Creson 63

Banque Gothique 111

Calligraphic 55

adnate serifs 36, 43

baselines 39, 114, 122–125

Calvert 59

Adobe Wood Type Ornaments 55

Basic Commercial 60

Calvert, Margaret 59

Aeraki, Despina 91

Baskerville 59

Campanile 97

aesthetic tailoring 114–117

Baskerville, John 59, 73

cap height 39

Agenda 61

Bau 60, 111

cap lines 39

Agnarsdóttir, Kristín 75

Bauer Bodoni 64

Carmen 59

Aicher, Otl 81

Bauer, Konrad F. 60

Carnase, Tom 61

Aktiv Grotesk 61

Baum, Walter 60

Carolingian minuscule 11

Akzidenz-Grotesk 16, 60, 67, 138

Becker, Dan 21, 112

Carpenter, Ron 61

Alana 55

Bell Gothic 60

Carta 55

Albers, Josef 138

Bembo 43, 55

Carter, Matthew 58

Albertus 55

Benton, Morris Fuller 60

Carusone, Antonio 123

Aldus Nova 58

Benton Sans 63

Cassandre, A . M . 55

alignment 92, 94–98, 108

Berling 58

Cavanaugh, Jackson 76

Alphabetical Design Studio 72

Berlow, David 59

Centaur 26, 43, 58, 62, 77

Alright Sans 76

Besley, Robert 60, 73

Centennial 24

Ambroise 59

bilateral serifs 43

centered alignments 95, 97

American Typewriter 55

Bi Sheng 11

Century Gothic 37

ampersands 50

Blackletter 11, 55

Century Schoolbook 49, 51, 64, 79, 109

analphabetics 46

Blackoak 97

Chalet 111

Anna McGregor logotype 64

Bløk Design 36, 49, 91, 135

Chalet Comprimé 27

Antitled 49

Bodoni 77, 78

Chang, Paula 28

aperture 35

body sizes 40

Chansler, Kim Buker 55

apex 35

Bonesana 59

characters, definition of 33

apostrophes 116

Bordeaux 142

Cheng Design 111 Cheng, Karen 16, 69

appearing sizes 40

bowl 35

Archer 59, 99

Brandon Grotesque 61

chins 35

arc of stem 35

Brauhaus Alternate 29

Chromatic 55

A R G N 55

Březina, David 70, 105

Citizen 49

arithmetical signs 46

Bringhurst, Robert 57, 84

Clarendon 60, 73, 97

arm 35

Brodovitch, Alexey 64

Collective Approach 27

Arnhem 59

Brooks, Tyler 106

columns 129, 130–135

A R S Maquette 61

Brush Lettering 55

Conduit 104 Constructivism 49

ascent 35, 39, 90

Bryant 61

August Bureau 85, 124

Bureau Grot 60

contrast 41

Austin 97

Burian, Veronika 58

Corporate S 61

Avant Garde 21, 61, 145

Burtin, Will 56

Cortat, Matthieu 59

Avenir 127

counters 35

axis 35, 140–143

Crnokrak, Peter 144 crossbars 35 Crossgrove, Carl 55 crotches 35 cupped serifs 43

156

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

D Dagny 61 Darden Studio 71 dashes 115 Democratica 55 descent 35, 39, 90

flowlines 129

H Haag, Fabio 61

flush-left alignments

Hagmann, Sibylle 61

94, 96, 98, 108

hairline serifs 43

flush-right alignments

half-line returns 100

94, 96, 108

Halja 55

Design Sense 88

fonts, definition of 55

Hattenbach, Stefan 60

Desmond, Matthew Aaron 55

Forsberg, Karl-Erik 58

Haus, Reinhard 58

diacritics 46

Fournier 59

Helvetica 21, 27, 49, 61, 75, 76, 123, 127

Didot 59

Fournier, Pierre Simon 59

Heroic 55

Didot, Firmin 59

Foxtrot Bravo Alpha ( F B A ) 29

hierarchy 104–113, 140

digital media 72

F B A . 14, 49, 79, 98, 139

Highsmith, Cyrus 59

Dilworth, Silas 55

Fraktur 11

Hische, Jessica 12

D I N 135

Franklin Gothic 23, 60

Historical Fell 79

dipthongs. See lexical ligatures.

Freebooter Script 97

Hoefler & Frere-Jones 59, 76

discretionary ligatures 50

Freight 112

Hoffmann, Edüard 61

Dispatch 59

Frutiger 77

hooks 35

Distressed 55

Frutiger, Adrian 61, 73, 76

Humanist Sans Serif 61

Dixon, Catherine 57

full-line returns 100

Humanist Serif 58

Dot Matrix 21

Futura 61, 67

Hunter 55 hyphenation 102–103, 115

dots 35 double stories 35 Downer, John 58

E ears 35

G G 2 K 23 Galison 12

idApostle 51

Galliard 58

Imagine-cga 97

Garamond 63

incised 55

Egizio 60

Garell, Lynne 55

indents 100

Egyptian Slab Serif 59

Geometric 61, 67

inferiors 45

Eidenbenz, Hermann 73

geometric shapes 144–145

Interstate 25

Elido 61

Gibbons, Charles 55, 66, 79

intervals. See gutters.

Eloquent 59

Gill, Eric 61

Inventaire 18 Ironmonger 79

El Studio 21

Gill Sans 61

em measurements 40, 100, 115

Gingko Fraktur 26

en measurements 40, 115

Giza 66, 79

Epic 76

Glypha 76

Jenson, Nicolas 58

Etica 105

glyphs 33

JFFerrule 97

Euro R S C G C & O 21

Gotham 24, 71, 72, 77, 124

Jones, George William 58

Experimental 55

Granjon 58

justified alignment 95, 99

eyes 35

graphic elements 101 Gravur Condensed 36

F Face. 51

J Jenson 58, 77

K Kaden, Joel 55

grid systems 127–137

kerning 86, 88, 117

Filmotype Atlas 55

Griffith, Chauncey H. 60

Klavika 71

Filosofia 77

Griffo, Francesco 58

Knockout 85, 99, 124

finials 35

Grip Limited 99

Kobayashi, Akira 58

flags 35

Grotesque Sans Serif 60

Kokkosi, Giota 91

Flama 29

Guardi 58

Korolkova, Alexandra 61

Gutenberg, Johannes 11

Košir, Tomato 140

gutters 129, 132, 137 A P P E N D I C E S Index

157

L Lange, Günter Gerhard 60

minuscules 11 Mirko Ilić Corp. 25, 143

centered alignments 95, 97

Lawson, Alexander 57

Moderno F B 59

flush-left alignments 94, 96, 98

leading 39, 86, 90–91, 93

Modern Serif 59

flush-right alignments 94, 96, 108

legs 35

modular grids 136–137

full-line returns 100

Leonardt, André 61

modules 129

graphic elements 100, 105

Leska 61

Monderer Design 138

half-line returns 100

Lew, Kent 59

Monospaced 55

hierarchy 104–113

lexical ligatures 50

Monotype 60, 73, 97

hyphenation 102–103

Licko, Zuzana 61, 73

Mostra Nuova 61

indents 100, 108

ligatures 50, 115

Mr Eaves 61

indicators 100

Lind, Barbara 55

Mrs Eaves 73

justified alignment 95, 99

line length 93

Mucca Design 71

kerning 117

lining figures 45

multiple-column grids 132–135

leading 93

links 35

Myriad 77

line length 93

Linotype Design Studio 55, 60 Lipton, Richard 59

orphans 117

N Naden/Mesker Design Co. 27

outdents 100, 101 ragging 102–103, 116

logotypes 139

Neder, Rafael 55

loops 35

Nelson Associates 64, 69, 97

rivers 117

lowercase 44

Neue Sans 61

spatial factors 105

L S D space 37, 136

Neutraface 61

symbols 100

Lubalin, Herb 61

Newlyn, Miles 55

tracking 117 type size 93

Luxecetera 111

Newzald 55, 92

The Luxury of Protest 145

Nexus 81, 96

Lynton 58

Niedermeier Design 64

Parson, Michael 55

non-lining figures 45

Patrick L Crawford Design 26, 62, 142

Noordzij, Peter Matthias 55, 59

Peignot 55

Maiola 58

Nordling, Örjan 61

Period/Retro 55

Majoor, Martin 81

Novarese, Aldo 60

Photina 59

margins 129

Numbers Depot 111

picas 40

M macrotypography 14, 121, 144

widows 117

Pierpont, Frank Hinman 59, 60

Mathematical 55

O Ohlmer, Falko 67, 104

Pixeleite 55

mean lines 39

Old Style Serif 58

Pixellated 55

Memphis 59, 135

Olson, Eric 61

Plantagenet Cherokee 36

Mendoza y Almeida José 59

One Love Organics 77

Plantin 27

Mercury 85, 124

Orator 55

points 40, 74

Mesquite 142

Ornamental 55

Ponchak, Greg 55

Metallophile 131

orphans 117

Porchez, Jean François 59

microtypography 14, 114, 144

outdents 100, 101

posture 47

Miedinger, Max 61, 76

overshoot 35

proportional aesthetics 114

Miller 27

Oxtail 60

proportional figures 45

Matthews, Kristine 16

M I N E ™ 21, 96, 111 Minion 74

158

P paragraphs

Langhus, Luke 24

D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

punctuation 46, 115, 116

Q Quentin 55 quotation marks 116

R ragging 102–103, 116

Slimbach, Robert 74

U Underground 28

small caps 44

Unicase 55

Smeijers, Fred 59

Univers 61, 73, 76, 78, 87, 140

Söderström, Göran 61

Universal Mathematical Pi 55

Rand, Paul 126, 127

Sowersby, Kris 55

uppercase 44

Redick, Joy 55

spatial factors 105

U R W Studio 55

Reed, Jesse 51, 69, 78, 92

spines 35

Usherwood, Leslie 58

reflexive serifs 43

spurs 35

Utopia 98

Refrigerator Deluxe 111

Stag 60

Renner, Paul 61

Stan, Tony 55

Ribeiro, Rui 56

stems 35

Vendetta 58

rivers 117

Stencil 55

Vitesse 96

Rockwell 59

Stomper 55

Volta 60

Rogers, Bruce 58

Strandell, Strom 15

von Döhren, Hannes 61

Rooney Web 28

stress 41

von Ompteda, Karin 144

Rosewood 55

strokes 35

Vox, Maximilien 57

V van Leeuwen, Matthijs 23

Ross, David Jonathan 60

stylistic ligatures 50

Rossi, Pete 21, 49

Stymie 97

Rotis 81

Summerour, Neil 76

Walbaum 59, 77

Rotunda 11

superfamilies 81

Walbaum, Justus Erich 59

rounded serifs 43

superiors 45

Walcott, Jason 59

Ruder, Emil 86

swashes 35

Walk Up Press 23

symbols 46, 55, 101

S Sabon 58 sans serifs, definition of 42, 55

W Wadekar, Akshata 87

Warde, Beatrice 70

W B (Werner Bischof) 16 T tabular figures 45

wedge 43

Scala Sans 79

tails 35

weight 47

Schelter & Giesecke Foundry 60

take off – media services 19, 67, 85

Whitman 59

Scheltersche Grotesk 60

terminals 35

Whitney 76

Scheppler, John 55

Terrasi, Tore 56

widows 117

Schwabacher 11

Textura 11

width 47

Schwartz, Christian 60, 61

Thesis TheSans 19, 85, 109

Wilson, Lance 112

Scott, Si 55

Thibaudeau, Francis 57

Wolf, Rudolf 59

Sensus Design Factory 16, 36

Thompson, Greg 61

Wolpe, Berthold 55

Sentinel 66, 76

Times 127

Wood Type 55

serifs, definition of 35, 42, 43

Topaz 69

Worthington, Laura 55

Shamal, Angus R. 61

Toppins, Aggie 71

Shape Font 56

tracking 86, 88, 117

Shapiro, Sergey 12

Trade Gothic 16, 21, 49, 97

shoulders 35

Transitional Sans Serif 61

sidebearings 40

Transitional Serif 59

Simonson, Mark 61

transitive serifs 43

single-column grids 130–131

Trilby 60

Skolar 70

Tschichold, Jan 10, 58

slab serifs 43, 55, 59, 60, 99

Twombly, Carol 55

X x-height 39 Z Zapata 79 Zapf, Hermann 58

typefaces, definition of 55–56 Typewriter 55 A P P E N D I C E S Index

159

APPENDICES

Acknowledgments & About the Author

THANK YOU

Don’t miss the other books in the series!

Rockport Publishers, for the opportunity to work together again All contributors, for making the effort to share your work Edward and Pamela Cullen, for your steadfast support and love David Thomas, for your patience and trust Dennis Puhalla, for your guidance and friendship Design Elements

Renate Gokl, for your instruction and example

Tim Samara 978–1–59253–261–2

My Students, for your attention and dedication Family and friends, for your understanding With sincere gratitude, Joe Bottoni, Stan Brod, Maren Carpenter Fearing, Yoshiko Burke, Maureen France, The Grillo Group, Jonathan Hayes, Sandy McGlasson, Laura Morriss, Gordon Salchow, Heinz Schenker Design Elements: Form & Space Dennis M. Puhalla, Ph.D. 978–1–59253–700–6

Kristin Cullen is a graphic designer, author, and educator based in Chicago, Illinois. Her work has appeared in national and international exhibits, as well as publications that include American Corporate Identity, Graphic Design USA , Graphis Poster Annual, HOW, and Print. Kristin also wrote Layout Workbook: A Real-World Guide to Building Pages in Graphic Design. She holds a master’s of fine arts from the Rhode Island School of Design and a bachelor’s of fine arts from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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D E S I G N E L E M E N T S Typography Fundamentals

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First published

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a member of Quayside Publishing Group

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Data available

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